V 


pii m 


OCT  3 1 1913 


F 1208  . W79  1913 
Winton,  George  B. 
Mexico  today 


1861-1938 . 


I 


/ 


FORWARD  MISSION  STUDY  COURSES  r 

EDITED  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  THE 

MISSIONARY  EDUCATION  MOVEMENT 


MEXICO  TO-DAY 

SOCIAL,  POLITICAL,  AND  RELIGIOUS 
CONDITIONS 


(N.  B. — Special  helps  and  denominational  missionary  litera- 
ture for  this  course  can  be  obtained  by  correspondence 
with  the  Secretary  of  your  mission  board  or  society.) 


BENITO  JDAEEZ 


MEXICO  TO-DAY 


SOCIAL,  POLITICAL,  AND 
RELIGIOUS  CONDITIONS 


m 


OF 


BY 

GEORGE  B.  WINTON 


OCT  31  1913 


1913 

Missionary  Education  Movement  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada 


NEW  YORK 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 

MISSIONARY  EDUCATION  MOVEMENT  OF  THB 
UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA 
NEW  YORK 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

PAGE 

Preface  

ix 

I 

The  Country  and  People  .... 

3 

II 

Political  Evolution  ..... 

33 

III 

Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern 

75 

IY 

Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  . 

115 

V 

The  Intellectual  Awakening  During  the 

Nineteenth  Century  .... 

143 

VI 

The  Protestant  Movement 

175 

APPENDIXES 

A 

Constitution  and  Government  . 

209 

B 

Area  and  Population  .... 

211 

C 

Religion,  Instruction,  and  Justice 

212 

D 

Production  and  Industry  .... 

213 

E 

Bibliography  ...... 

215 

F 

Statistics  of  Protestant  Missions  in  Mexico, 

1913 

223 

Index  

227 

V 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Benito  Juarez Frontispiece 

Relief  Map Page  4 

Where  Strawberries  Ripen  Every  Day  in 
the  Tear  8 

Where  100  Bananas  Sell  for  Eight  Cents  “ 8 

Natives  of  Chihuahua  . . . . “ 20 

Prehistoric  Remains: 

Calendar  Stone  Discovered  1790  . “ 34 

Hall  of  Mosaics “34 

Porfirio  Diaz  54 

Cathedral,  Mexico  City  . . . . “ 98 

Homes  of  the  Poor  . . . . . “ 120 

Interior  of  Home  of  a Wealthy  Gentleman  “ 120 

Street  Gambling “132 

Group  of  Women  and  Children  . . “132 

Woman  Who  Walked  100  Miles  to  Find  a 

Protestant  Church “ 136 

Children  of  Mexico  150 


Studying  English  in  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Chihua- 
hua   

Graduating  Class,  Normal  School,  Saltillo 
Sarah  L.  Keen  College  for  Girls,  Mexico 

City 

Faculty  and  Students,  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Coyoacan  . 

Faculty  and  Students,  Queretaro  Institute 
Trinity  Church,  Chihuahua 


“ 164 

“ 188 

“ 188 

“ 192 

“ 192 

“ 198 


Illustrations 


viii 

McMurtrie  Chapel  and  Manse,  Coyoacan 
A Christian  Family  . 

Typical  Rural  Home  of  a Christian  Family 
Map 


Page  198 
“ 200 
“ 200 
End 


PREFACE 


Mexico  and  its  affairs  have  of  late  taken 
much  space  in  the  press  dispatches.  For 
about  a generation  that  country  has  been  well 
policed  and  has  prospered.  A general  shock 
of  surprise  and  disappointment  has  there- 
fore been  felt  at  recent  events.  Many  have 
been  ready  to  charge  the  renewal  of  insur- 
rection and  war  to  racial  defects  in  the  Mexi- 
can people.  A good  deal  of  superficial  writ- 
ing has  appeared  in  the  papers, — the  remarks 
of  observers  ignorant  of  the  country’s  history 
and  failing  in  consequence  to  enter  into  the 
deeper  currents  of  its  national  life. 

The  Mexican  people  are  engaged  in  a strug- 
gle for  freedom.  Political  independence  has 
been  achieved ; liberty  of  conscience  is  at  last 
realized ; a liberal  constitution  guarantees 
human  rights.  But  the  burden  of  popular 
ignorance  and  of  industrial  helplessness  has 
not  yet  been  lifted.  That  load  must  be 
taken  off.  It  has  grown  insufferable.  The 
paroxysms  that  are  now  shaking  the  country 
to  its  center  are  but  blind  struggles  after  this 
liberty.  Mexico  needs  help,  especially  the 


IX 


X 


Preface 


help  of  her  nearest  neighbors  on  the  north. 
To  know  her  condition,  to  sympathize,  to  lend 
a hand  in  the  work  of  education  and  in  the 
spread  of  true  religion,  is  far  better  than  to 
criticise  and  to  threaten  her  with  armed  inter- 
vention. This  book  has  been  written  wholly 
in  the  interest  of  a better  understanding 
between  neighbors. 

G.  B.  Winton. 

Nashville,  Tewn.,  May  20,  1913. 


THE  COUNTRY  AND  PEOPLE 


The  most  famous  group  of  mines,  historically,  is  that  in 
the  districts  of  Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  and  Catone  in  the 
states  of  Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  and  San  Luis  Potosi 
respectively.  These  districts,  covering  an  area  of  some 
thirteen  thousand  square  miles,  are  practically  within  the 
tropics,  for  the  northern  boundary  is  only  24  degrees  and 
30  minutes  north  of  the  equator.  The  Veta  Madre  lode  of 
Guanajuato  alone  produced  $252,000,000  between  1556  and 
1803.— -Joseph  King  Goodrich. 

Now  with  regard  to  the  character  of  the  people.  They 
are  as  Oriental  in  type,  in  thought,  and  in  habits  as  the 
Orientals  themselves.  It  is  true  they  have  a veneer  of 
European  civilization;  but  underneath  this  veneer,  on 
studying  the  people  and  becoming  better  acquainted  with 
them,  we  find  that  they  are  genuine  Asiatics.  They  have 
some  of  the  fatalism,  the  same  tendency  for  speculation 
on  the  unpractical  side  of  life  and  religion,  the  same  oppo- 
sition to  the  building  up  of  industries,  the  same  tradition- 
alism and  respect  for  the  usages  of  antiquity.  The  lan- 
guage spoken  is  the  Spanish,  which  is  universally  used 
by  the  Indian  tribes. — William  Wallace. 

Land  holdings  are  concentrated  to  a greater  degree  in 
Mexico  to-day  than  they  were  in  France  in  1789.  Seven 
thousand  families  hold  practically  all  the  arable  land.  If 
the  distribution  were  proportionately  the  same  as  it  is  in 
the  United  States,  one  million  Mexican  families  would  be 
in  possession  of  titles  to  landed  property.  In  the  state 
of  Morelos,  the  center  of  the  Zapatist  revolt,  twelve 
hacendados  (proprietors)  own  nine  tenths  of  the  farming 
property.  In  Chihuahua,  the  center  of  the  agrarian  revo- 
lution in  the  north,  the  Terrazas  family  holds  nearly 
twenty  million  acres,  which  comprise  nearly  all  the  tillable 
soil  of  that  state.  The  greater  portion  of  the  state  of 
Yucatan  is  held  by  thirty  men,  kings  of  sisal  hemp.  The 
territory  of  Quintana  Roo,  which  is  double  the  size  of 
Massachusetts,  is  divided  among  eight  companies.  When 
I visited  Madero  on  January  27,  he  unrolled  a map  of 
Lower  California  showing  the  land  gifts  of  General  Diaz. 
That  territory,  equal  in  area  to  Alabama,  had  been  sold 
in  five  vast  tracts  for  about  three  fifths  of  a cent  an 
acre. — John  Kenneth  Turner. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  COUNTRY  AND  PEOPLE 

A Pleasant  Land.  Mexico  is  a picture  book 
for  the  study  of  geography.  Nowhere  can 
mountain  and  plain,  valley  and  foothill,  river, 
lake,  forest,  and  field  be  seen  in  sharper  out- 
line or  examined  on  a more  beautiful  map 
of  gray  and  green  and  gold.  Travelers  will 
find  that  country  well  worth  a visit.  The 
trip  is  convenient  and  inexpensive ; and  it  is 
well  to  remember — strange  as  the  statement 
may  sound — that  it  is  as  pleasant  in  summer 
as  in  winter.  “ But  is  not  Mexico  in  the 
tropics?  ” To  be  sure.  But  most  of  it  is 
from  five  to  nine  thousand  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  an  altitude  of  five  thousand  feet  or 
over  guarantees  pleasant  summer  weather, 
no  matter  what  the  latitude  is. 

The  Mountains.  Glance  at  the  map.  Down 
either  side  of  the  curving  triangle  runs  a rib 
of  mountains — the  Sierra  Madre  (Mother 
Range)  each  is  called,  one  of  the  east,  the 
other  of  the  west.  They  are  continuations  in 
a rough  way  of  the  Rockies  and  Sierra  Ne- 

3 


4 


Mexico  To-Day 


vada.  (Nevada  means  “ snow-capped.”) 
These  main  ranges  are  mostly  quite  near  the 
sea — the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  east,  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean  on  the  west.  The  region  between 
each  range  and  its  corresponding  coast  is 
everywhere  a broken  tangle  of  deep  gorges, 
vast  cliffs,  terraced  foothills,  and  open  val- 
leys, of  varying  elevations,  with  here  and 
there  a strip  of  hot,  seacoast  plain.  The  de- 
scent from  the  summit  of  the  ranges  to  sea- 
level  may  be  anything  from  six  to  twelve 
thousand  feet,  and  as  this  huge  drop  of  two 
miles  is  often  made  in  fifty  miles  or  less  of 
distance,  one  reason  at  once  appears  why  so 
few  railways  have  made  their  way  out  to  the 
coast. 

Along  the  Coast.  The  coastal  strips  and  ad- 
joining foothills  have  never  been  thickly  in- 
habited. Along  the  coast  the  climate  is  dry 
and  very  hot.  On  the  mountainsides  there  is 
more  rainfall,  and  verdure  is  abundant.  But 
the  hills  and  the  gorges  are  usually  so  rough 
as  to  be  almost  uninhabitable,  and,  besides, 
terrible  malarial  fevers  prevail.  A plague 
of  insect  pests  interferes  with  agriculture 
and  stock-raising,  to  say  nothing  of  making 
life  burdensome  to  the  human  animal.  To 
these  disadvantages  of  life  in  the  coast  re- 
gion is  to  be  added  the  singular  fact  that  on 


The  Country  and  People  5 

the  whole  huge  coast-line  of  Mexico  (about 
6,000  miles)  on  the  east  and  west  together, 
there  is  scarcely  a single  good  harbor.  Vera 
Cruz  has  only  a roadstead,  Tampico  but  the 
narrow  and  tortuous  channel  of  a river.  On 
the  west  the  harbors  at  Acapulco  and  Mazat- 
lan  are  a little  better,  but  the  Pacific  Ocean  is 
very  wide,  and  there  has  never  been  much 
traffic  with  the  Orient.  So  it  comes  about 
that  up  to  the  present  the  coast  cities  are  in- 
significant, the  coast  region  sparsely  inhab- 
ited, and  all  of  Mexico  that  is  worth  while  is 
on  the  great  central  plateau. 

Central  Plateau.  This  plateau  is  a curving 
triangle,  shaped  like  the  country,  highest  at 
its  southern  apex  where  the  two  great  ranges 
draw  together  and  sloping  gradually  to  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  north.  Mon- 
terey is  the  only  city  of  importance  situated 
outside  the  plateau.  It  lies  north  of  a fold 
in  the  great  range  of  the  east,  and  is  itself 
about  two  thousand  feet  above  sea-level. 

Climate  of  Central  Region.  This  outline  of 
topography  will  account  for  the  surprising 
statement  that  Mexico  is  a good  summer  re- 
sort. The  general  level  of  the  country  be- 
tween the  great  ranges,  the  country  which  is 
really  Mexico,  is  more  than  five  thousand  feet 
above  sea-level.  This  guarantees  cool,  sweet 


6 


Mexico  To-Day 


air  even  in  midsummer.  This  interior  pla- 
teau is  not  a perfectly  flat  table-land,  but  is 
itself  broken  up  into  smaller  ranges,  hills, 
and  plains.  Much  of  it  is  considerably  above 
the  average  altitude,  and  several  of  the  cities 
— Mexico,  Zacatecas,  Toluca,  and  others — are 
more  than  seven  thousand  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Toluca  is  nearly  nine  thousand,  and  is 
overshadowed  by  a snow-capped  mountain. 
Its  air  is  chill  and  bracing  during  the  hottest 
months,  yet  it  sutlers  from  no  severe  cold 
even  in  winter. 

Tonic  Yet  Trying  Temperature.  This  absence 
of  winter  is  one  of  the  marked  features  of 
life  in  Mexico.  Over  the  wide  reaches  of  the 
plateau  it  often  forms  frosts  during  the  win- 
ter months,  but  seldom  freezes.  Those  are 
months  of  sunshine;  the  bright  sun  each  day 
warms  up  the  air  and  the  earth,  while  the 
warm  winds  that  roll  up  from  the  tropic  seas 
on  either  side  of  the  narrow  continent  keep 
real  winter  well  at  bay.  As  will  be  seen,  with 
winters  that  are  so  mild  and  sunny  and  with 
summers  tempered  by  cool  mountain  breezes, 
high  altitudes,  and  frequent  showers,  Mexico 
offers  for  mere  human  comfort  an  almost 
ideal  climate.  High  altitudes  make  insidious 
inroads  on  the  nerves,  however,  and  the 
sharp  changes  from  heat  by  day  to  frost  by 


The  Country  and  People  7 

night  may  be  disastrous  to  health  if  not 
guarded  against.  The  water  supply  is 
usually  defective  and  the  sanitation  of  the 
cities,  most  of  which  are  very  old,  leaves 
much  to  be  desired. 

Lack  of  Rainfall.  This  remark  about  the 
water  brings  up  the  most  noteworthy  aspect 
of  the  Mexican  climate,  next  to  the  even  tem- 
perature. Mexico  is  an  arid  country.  It  is 
so  situated  with  reference  to  the  trade-winds 
that  even  along  its  coasts  the  rainfall  is  scant. 
In  the  interior  it  is  even  lighter.  The  two 
mountain  ranges,  east  and  west,  act  as  fences 
against  moisture.  They  comb  the  clouds  out 
of  the  breezes  that  flow  up  from  the  ocean 
and  the  Gulf.  There  is,  nevertheless,  a rainy 
season — from  May  to  October — throughout 
the  plateau.  In  some  years  the  rains  are 
sufficient  to  produce  fair  crops  of  corn  and 
beans  and  barley.  These  rains  are  usually 
more  abundant  toward  the  southern  end  of 
the  plateau.  In  some  of  the  northern  and 
central  sections  the  rainfall  is  so  light  that 
no  crops  can  be  counted  on  without  irriga- 
tion. But  water  for  irrigation  is  itself  un- 
certain, depending  on  the  rainfall.  None  of 
the  mountain  ranges  have  snow  on  them.  A 
few  volcanic  peaks  near  the  junction  of  the 
two  ranges  south  of  Mexico  City  reach  up 


8 


Mexico  To-Day 


into  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
snow-line  is,  of  course,  higher  there  than  in 
northern  latitudes.  But  the  long  sierras  east 
and  west  are  without  the  treasures  of  ice  and 
snow  to  melt  under  the  summer  sun  and  send 
down  a gush  of  permanent  water  when  the 
plains  need  it  most.  Becourse  is  therefore 
had  to  dams  and  reservoirs,  which  catch  the 
overflow  when  the  summer  rains  fall  and 
store  it  up  against  the  drouth  of  planting 
time  the  next  spring.  Such  enterprises  are 
expensive,  but  as  the  lands  are  fertile  and  the 
sun  warm  and  constant,  the  returns  are  enor- 
mous. Wherever  there  are  streams  that  are 
at  all  permanent  they  are  tapped  and  drawn 
off  into  cultivated  fields.  Many  of  them 
thus  never  make  their  way  out  to  the  sea, 
and  most  of  them  are  often  dry  and  desolate 
looking. 

Mexico’s  Products.  The  products  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  country  are  those  of  the  tem- 
perate rather  than  of  the  tropic  zone.  Corn, 
wheat,  barley,  beans,  cotton,  peppers,  toma- 
toes, oranges,  berries,  and  similar  products 
are  staples.  Potatoes,  tomatoes,  corn,  and 
tobacco  are  indigenous  to  the  New  World. 
Mexico  subsists  largely  on  corn.  Before  the 
days  of  the  Europeans  its  people  had  learned 
to  soak  the  grain  in  limewater,  pound  it 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  T. 

WHERE  STRAWBERRIES  RIPEN  EVERY  DAY  IN  THE  YEAR 


WHERE  100  BANANAS  SELL  FOR  EIGHT  CENTS 


The  Country  and  People  9 

while  damp  into  dough  and  bake  the  cakes  of 
this  on  hot  stones.  These  little  cakes  or  tor- 
tillas are  still  the  staple  bread  of  the  country. 
The  Spaniards  brought  over  beans  or  fri- 
joles.  These,  boiled  in  water  and  afterward, 
if  the  family  can  afford  it,  fried  in  lard,  sup- 
plement the  corn  cakes.  These  two  ingre- 
dients make  up  nine  tenths  of  the  fare  of 
nine  tenths  of  the  people  of  Mexico.  If  there 
is  no  lard  in  which  to  fry  the  beans,  they  are 
eaten  boiled ; if  there  are  no  beans,  the  tortil- 
las are  eaten  alone — with  perhaps  a few  raw 
peppercorns  to  flavor  them.  The  fondness 
of  the  people  for  hot  red  and  green  peppers 
or  chillies  is  well  known.  With  them  they 
season  about  everything  which  they  cook, 
often  too  strongly  for  unaccustomed  palates. 

Scenery  and  Flora.  Mexico  is  a picturesque 
land.  The  air  is  astonishingly  clear.  Dis- 
tant objects  appear  near.  The  mountains 
are  bare  and  rugged,  their  bones  sticking  out 
harshly.  The  country  has  few  forests,  and 
they  mostly  of  small  trees.  The  scantiness 
of  moisture  is  everywhere  apparent.  Many 
of  the  plains  appear  to  be  nothing  more  than 
sandy  deserts.  As  for  that,  much  depends 
on  the  season.  In  the  time  of  the  rains  these 
plains  break  out  with  the  green  and  gold  of 
flowering  plants.  The  stiff  yuccas  and  cac- 


10 


Mexico  To-Day 


tuses  which  one  sees  weathering  even  the  dry 
seasons — the  time  of  year  when  most  people 
visit  Mexico — have  more  life  in  them  than 
they  seem  to  have,  and  all  of  them  are 
useful.  The  yuccas  produce  a valuable 
fiber,  and  the  flat-leaved  cactus  a fruit  that 
is  highly  esteemed.  The  maguey  or  cen- 
tury plant  is  tapped  for  a sweet  juice 
that  ferments  into  a kind  of  beer;  it  is 
crushed  and  the  juice  distilled  into  a fiery 
brandy;  its  leaves  make  food  for  cattle;  its 
stalk  is  preserved  and  eaten  for  sweetmeat; 
a fiber  from  it  makes  ropes,  cloth,  or  paper; 
and  in  a dozen  other  homely  ways  this 
strange  plant  is  made  to  minister  to  the 
needs  of  man.  It  is  called,  for  example,  the 
thread-and-needle  plant.  The  pointed  tip  of 
its  great  leaves  may  be  broken  off  in  such  a 
manner  that  by  pulling  on  it  a long  and 
strong  fiber  is  drawn  from  the  leaf.  One  has 
thus  in  his  hand  a needle  and  a thread  for 
such  repairs  of  his  clothes  as  moving  through 
the  thorny  thickets  may  have  made  urgent. 

Animal  life.  The  thickets  of  short  vegeta- 
tion, on  foothills  and  mountains  that  at  a 
little  distance  seem  utterly  bare,  are  often 
surprisingly  dense.  They  furnish  hiding- 
places  and  browse  for  wild  deer  and  domestic 
goats  and  cattle.  Through  them  swarm 


The  Country  and  People  11 

quail  and  hares  and  coyotes;  hundreds  of 
cactus  wrens,  fly-catchers,  and  mocking-birds 
nest  among  them,  and  cheer  the  lonely 
reaches  with  their  song.  The  whole  plateau 
region  is  largely  free  of  obnoxious  insects. 
The  smaller  mountain  ranges  are  often 
crowned  with  oaks  and  pines,  and  with  their 
wide  views,  bracing  air,  and  tonic  nights,  free 
from  frost  and  rain,  offer  ideal  conditions 
for  camping. 

Minerals.  From  the  beginning  Mexico  has 
been  famous  for  the  abundance  of  me  pre- 
cious metals.  These  strange,  bare-looking 
mountains  often  conceal  great  treasures  of 
silver  and  gold.  The  output  of  silver  from 
the  mountains  of  Mexico  has  been,  and  still 
is,  enormous.  There  are  single  mines  that 
have  been  producing  for  over  a hundred 
years  and  are  still  not  exhausted.  The  ex- 
ports of  silver  during  the  Spanish  regime 
have  to  be  counted  in  ship-loads,  and  the 
total  is  so  enormous  that  it  is  quite  incom- 
prehensible. Gold  has  been  found  in  many 
places,  and  is  produced  in  paying  quantities. 
Quicksilver  abounds  in  some  parts  of  the 
republic,  and  is  immensely  valuable.  There 
are  also  one  or  two  copper-producing  re- 
gions, especially  in  the  northwest.  But  it  is 
for  lead  and  silver  that  Mexico  is  best  known. 


12 


Mexico  To-Day 


Great  smelting  plants  have  been  set  up  in 
several  principal  cities — Monterey,  Aguas- 
calientes,  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  elsewhere, — 
and  even  in  many  isolated  mining  regions. 
Railways  have  been  driven  through  the 
roughest  mountain  sections  to  bring  out  the 
products  of  the  mines,  and  the  additions  from 
this  source  to  the  wealth  of  the  country  have 
been  on  a grand  scale. 

Geology.  Geologically  much  of  Mexico  is  of 
recent  formation,  and  even  the  ranges  that 
are  of  ancient  rock  have  most  of  them  been 
jostled  and  tilted  out  of  their  level  by  later 
volcanic  action.  Much  of  the  limestone  has 
been  metamorphosed  into  marble,  of  which 
there  are  inexhaustible  supplies.  In  many 
places  beautiful  and  valuable  onyx  is  found. 
One  volcano,  Colima,  is  still  active  occasion- 
ally, and  throughout  the  whole  country,  in 
the  south  and  west  especially,  earthquake 
shocks  are  not  infrequent. 

Other  Products.  Besides  minerals,  Mexico 
exports  manila  hemp,  ixtle 1 fiber,  bananas, 
coffee,  tobacco,  vanilla,  chocolate,  and  vari- 
ous other  articles  of  commerce.  Of  staple 
farm  products  she  scarcely  produces  enough 
for  her  own  people,  especially  in  years  of 

1 Ixtle  or  istle  fiber  comes  from  several  plants  growing  in 
Mexico. 


The  Country  and  People  13 

light  rainfall.  The  progress  of  the  country 
has  been  impeded  by  the  holding  of  its  land 
in  large  tracts,  much  of  it  unimproved,  and 
the  reduction  of  the  small  farmer  to  the  cate- 
gory of  renter  or  hired  man.  Stock-raising 
is  an  important  part  of  the  rural  interests  of 
the  country.  There  are  large  exportations 
of  hides,  and  in  recent  years,  of  cattle,  while 
the  interior  traffic  in  horses,  cattle,  goats, 
and  sheep  is  always  heavy. 

The  People.  The  people  of  Mexico  are,  in 
their  way,  as  picturesque  as  their  country. 
Something  over  half  of  them  are  of  mixed 
blood,  Indian  and  Spanish.  Of  the  remain- 
der a good  deal  more  than  half  are  pure- 
blood  natives — Indians,  we  call  them,  for 
lack  of  a better  name.  The  rest  are  Euro- 
peans, mostly  Spaniards.  For  a good  while 
after  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  (in  1521) 
a careful  distinction  was  kept  up  between 
natives  or  indigenas,  the  Spaniards,  and  the 
mixed  bloods  or  mestizos.  There  were  dis- 
tinctions even  in  the  grades  of  these,  such  as 
half-breeds,  quadroons,  octoroons,  and  other 
gradations;  and  the  Mexican-born  children 
of  Spaniards  or  creoles  ( criollos ) were  also 
distinguished  from  people  born  in  Europe. 
In  a general  way  these  distinctions  were  so- 
cial, and  tended  to  lower  the  standing  of  all 


14 


Mexico  To-Day 


others  below  the  level  of  the  Spanish  hidalgo, 
whether  soldier,  priest,  or  governor.  The 
rulers  in  Church  and  state  and  the  large  land 
and  mine  owners — often  the  same  people — 
formed  a sort  of  aristocracy  to  which  the  rest 
of  the  world  looked  up.  They  were  usually 
proud  of  their  Spanish  blood  and  took  pains 
to  keep  it  from  intermixture.  Spaniards  of 
a lower  class,  however,  mingled  freely  with 
the  natives.  The  creoles,  already  somewhat 
offcaste  because  creoles,  were  even  readier 
to  adopt  the  social  level  of  the  people  with 
whom  they  had  associated  from  childhood.1 

The  Mixing  of  Races.  For  three  hundred 
years  the  process  of  amalgamation  went  on. 
Comparatively  speaking,  not  many  women 
came  from  old  Spain  to  New  Spain,  as  Mex- 
ico was  then  called.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Indians  found  in  Mexico  were  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced in  agricultural  and  industrial  arts  to 
hold  their  own  in  competition.  They  had 
social  institutions  and  were  of  a high  order 
of  intelligence.  Physically  they  were  not 
inferior  to  the  Spaniards,  not  even  a great 
deal  darker  in  complexion  than  the  Andalu- 


1 One  result  of  this  came  to  be  a confusion  in  the  minds  of 
many  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  “ creole,”  a word  which 
was  often  applied  to  mestizos.  Properly  it  means  American- 
born  children  of  European  parents. 


The  Country  and  People  15 

sians.  The  Mexican  women  especially  were 
petite,  modest,  attractive.  Intermarriage 
therefore  became  common.  It  was  indeed 
inevitable.  There  were  no  grave  barriers. 
Social  lines  were  drawn,  but  for  other  rea- 
sons. The  people  of  mixed  blood  multiplied. 
They  came  to  be  nearly  half  of  the  popula- 
tion. Any  attempt  to  ostracize  them  as  a 
class  was  more  and  more  absurd.  In  1821, 
three  hundred  years  after  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards,  Mexico  was  freed  from  Spain. 
After  that  there  was — theoretically,  at  least 
— equal  opportunity  for  all.  The  old  mori- 
bund distinctions  died  at  last.  Now  all  are 
Mexicans,  and  proud  of  it.  They  take  about 
as  little  interest  in  the  question  of  how  much 
or  little  of  Spanish  blood  an  individual  has 
as  we  do  in  the  United  States  in  the  question 
whether  a man’s  grandfather  was  Scottish, 
English,  or  Irish,  German,  French,  or  Ameri- 
can. A few  families  keep  to  the  “ blue  ” 
Spanish  blood  in  their  marriages,  and  pri- 
vately make  some  boast  of  it.  But  they  too 
are  none  the  less  enthusiastic  Mexicans.  To 
be  a gachupin  (nickname  for  Spaniard)  is 
by  no  means  popular  in  Mexico. 

The  Native  Races.  Researches  into  the  his- 
tory of  the  Mexican  tribes  prior  to  the  com- 
ing of  the  Europeans  are  more  interesting 


16 


Mexico  To-Day 


than  satisfactory.  The  tribes  that  had  suc- 
cessively inhabited  the  Valley  of  Mexico — 
Toltec,  Aztec,  and  others, — had  developed  a 
fairly  intelligible  picture-writing.  They  had 
invented  a process  for  making  excellent  paper 
out  of  certain  fibrous  plants,  and  on  this  pa- 
per, in  the  hieroglyphics  of  which  they  made 
use,  they  had  many  valuable  records  and 
memoranda.  Unfortunately  a perfect  ma- 
nia for  destroying  everything  connected  with 
the  priests  and  worship  of  the  Indians  pos- 
sessed the  Spanish  conquerors.  These 
Spaniards  were  mostly  illiterate  and  super- 
stitious men,  the  priests  who  were  with  them 
being  not  much  better  than  the  soldiers. 
Since  the  sacrifice  of  prisoners  before  the 
god  of  war  was  one  of  the  desperate  resorts 
that  marked  the  resistance  of  the  Indians  to 
the  invaders,  the  Spanish  naturally  con- 
ceived a great  horror  for  all  their  religion. 
They  sincerely  believed  it  devil  worship. 
Hence  they  ruthlessly  destroyed  the  invalu- 
able records  laid  up  in  the  temples,  and 
so  rendered  abortive  any  attempt  to  trace 
hack  the  history  of  the  interesting  and  more 
than  half-civilized  peoples  whom  they  were 
striving  to  conquer.  Within  a very  few 
years  the  folly  of  this  wholesale  destructive- 
ness began  to  be  seen.  Persons  of  scholarly 


The  Country  and  People  17 

taste  did  all  they  could  to  remedy  it.  A 
young  Spanish  priest,  Padre  Sahagun,  came 
to  Mexico  in  1829  as  a missionary  to  the  In- 
dians. He  was  a gentle,  amiable  man,  of 
humanitarian  temper,  who  soon  came  to 
sympathize  thoroughly  with  the  people 
among  whom  he  labored.  He  had  the  schol- 
ar’s instinct  for  what  is  valuable  and  inter- 
esting, and  set  himself  to  learn  the  native 
language.  In  the  course  of  a few  years  he 
produced  a valuable  lexicon,  written  in  three 
columns,  one  giving  the  Indian,  the  next  the 
Spanish,  and  the  third  the  Latin  word.  It 
will  be  recalled  that  at  the  time  the  lexicon 
was  prepared  the  Spanish  language  itself 
had  scarcely  crystallized  into  its  classical 
mold,  so  that  Latin  had  to  be  resorted  to  for 
scholarly  definition. 

An  Early  Spanish  Scholar.  Sahagun  passed 
from  the  study  of  the  native  language  to  the 
study  of  the  people  themselves  and  their 
history.  Encouraged  for  a time  by  his  eccle- 
siastical superiors,  who  allowed  him  leisure 
and  financial  help,  he  surrounded  himself 
with  Indian  scholars  who  were  able  to  inter- 
pret and  to  write  the  picture  symbols  in  use 
before  the  Spanish  came.  These  men  col- 
lected such  annals  as  had  been  fortunately 
left  over  from  the  universal  devastation  of 


18 


Mexico  To-Day 


the  conquest,  and  when  these  were  lacking 
they  made  new  ones.  In  this  way,  by  the 
interpretations  given  by  Sahagun  and  oth- 
ers, something  of  the  story  of  the  Indians 
may  be  learned.  This  good  man  devoted 
sixty  years  to  these  studies,  much  of  the 
time  in  poverty,  the  object  of  jealousy  and 
suspicion.  His  work  has  been  of  immense 
value  to  students. 

The  Aztec  Kingdom.  It  was  only  recently, 
comparatively  speaking,  that  the  records  had 
been  kept.  The  Aztec  Kingdom  of  Monte- 
zuma had  been  built  on  the  ruins  of  a Toltec 
civilization  that  in  everything  but  warlike 
vigor  had  been  superior  to  it.  Its  capital, 
which  we  now  call  Mexico  City,  was  lo- 
cated on  a rocky  island  in  a great  shallow 
lake.  The  place  was  selected  because  it  was 
easy  to  defend.  Its  location  had  been  desig- 
nated by  the  medicine-men  of  the  tribe  when 
they  had  found  there  a small  eagle  sitting  on 
a cactus  devouring  a snake.  This  device  is 
now  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  Mexican  repub- 
lic. Here  the  Aztecs,  who  were  a tribe  of 
warriors  that  had  drifted  in  from  the  west, 
soon  built  up  a hostile  city  over  against  the 
capital  of  the  Toltecs,  situated  across  Lake 
Texcoco,  overcame  their  more  civilized 
neighbors,  and  by  the  time  of  the  Spanish 


The  Country  and  People  19 

invasion  were  the  dominating  force  in  all 
that  part  of  Mexico. 

Toltecs  and  Others.  The  Toltecs,  whom  they 
subjugated,  had,  like  themselves,  come  from 
the  west.  The  place  names  which  still  re- 
main indicate  that  they  came  up  from  the 
Pacific  coast  in  the  neighborhood  of  San 
Bias,  tarrying  more  or  less  in  what  is  now 
the  state  of  Jalisco,  and  gradually  moving  on 
to  the  beautiful  region  about  Mexico  City, 
where  they  seem  to  have  displaced  still  ear- 
lier inhabitants.  These  remote  tribes  moved 
down  east  and  south  leaving  striking  remains 
in  the  stone  buildings  of  ruined  cities  still  to 
be  found.  These  buildings  exhibit  much 
skill  and  taste  in  stone  work,  and  some  of 
them  are  covered  with  inscriptions  which 
have  never  yet  been  deciphered. 

Early  Migrations.  How  these  successive  mi- 
grations had  originally  reached  the  west 
coast  of  Mexico  is  not  known.  The  tradi- 
tions of  the  Indians  themselves  mostly  point 
to  a land  migration  down  the  coast  from  the 
north.  It  is  believed  by  some  that  these 
were  the  people  who  left  behind  them  the 
great  cliff  dwellings  and  the  remains  of  an 
elaborate  irrigation  system  in  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  They  seem  to  have  been 
driven  out  of  that  region  by  the  inroads  of 


20 


Mexico  To-Day 


warlike  desert  tribes,  possibly  the  Apaches. 
They  were  not  themselves  warlike  but  agri- 
cultural and  pacific  in  their  tastes. 

Kinship  to  Japanese.  Both  the  Mexican  In- 
dians and  the  Pueblo  tribes,  the  Mohaves, 
Zuni,  Navajos,  and  others  of  our  own  south- 
west, are  a small  brown  type  of  men,  quite 
different  from  the  tall,  copper-colored  Ameri- 
cans of  the  east  and  north.  Many  things 
suggest  their  kinship  with  the  Japanese.  The 
ocean  current  which  strikes  our  west  coast, 
flowing  almost  directly  east,  might  have 
brought  over  in  some  remote  past  immigrants, 
willing  or  unwilling,  from  the  Sunrise  King- 
dom. But,  as  the  Mexicans  are  fond  of  say- 
ing, Quien  sabel  (Who  knows?) 

People  Now  Homogeneous.  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  people  of  Mexico  vary  thus  in 
their  origin  they  show  to-day  a marked  and 
homogeneous  national  type.  There  are  some 
sharp  variations,  it  is  true,  among  the  native 
Indians — those  tribes  which,  remaining  in 
retired  mountain  regions,  have  kept  from  in- 
termingling with  the  Europeans.  The  Ta- 
rasco  varies  from  the  Huasteco  and  both 
from  the  Aztec  or  Mixtec.  These  variations 
are  not  radical,  however,  and  result  in  part 
from  differences  in  habitat  and  surround- 
ings. The  same  physical  type  prevails  gen- 


NATIVES  OF  CHinUAHUA 


The  Country  and  People  21 

erally.  The  native  Mexican  is  short  and 
sturdy.  His  face  and  head  are  large,  his 
feet  and  hands  small,  his  palm  long  and  fin- 
gers short,  his  body  muscular.  He  can  carry 
enormous  loads,  and  as  a runner  in  high  alti- 
tudes is  incomparable.  His  lung  power  is 
immense  and  his  endurance  a wonder.  An 
Indian  will  hire  himself  to  a traveler  to  carry 
his  valise  over  the  mountain  trails,  the  trav- 
eler proceeding  on  horseback.  In  such  a 
case  the  Indian  with  the  valise  on  his  back 
is  always  more  than  a match  for  the  horse. 

The  Indians  To-day.  These  remaining  native 
tribes  keep  timidly  to  the  wild  mountain  re- 
gions that  have  not  been  taken  away  from 
them  for  farming  or  other  purposes.  They 
hold  tenaciously  to  their  lands  and  are  jeal- 
ous of  any  inroads  by  “ white  folks,” 
whether  for  mining,  lumbering,  or  trade. 
They  have  been  cheated,  tricked,  and  im- 
posed upon  for  four  hundred  years  and  have 
reason  to  be  on  their  guard.  Yet  no  people 
in  the  world  are  more  amiable  and  cordial 
with  those  who  merit  and  have  won  their  con- 
fidence. Their  hospitality  is  untiring  and 
their  good-will  unfeigned.  They  are  all 
nominally  converted  to  the  Catholic  faith, 
just  as  they  all  yield  obedience  to  the  consti- 
tuted government.  There  was  in  fact  no 


22 


Mexico  To-Day 


great  difference  in  the  way  they  were 
brought  into  subjection  to  the  one  and  the 
other. 

Capacity  of  Indians.  While  at  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquest  some  of  the  tribes  ex- 
hibited more  advance  in  civilization  than 
others,  and  while  since  that  time  there  have 
been  more  conspicuous  individuals  arising 
from  one  tribe  than  from  another,  it  seems 
a fact  that  the  Indians  of  practically  all  the 
tribes  are  intelligent  and  capable  of  great 
development.  The  theory  which  seems  to 
get  lodged  in  the  minds  of  many,  that  the 
civilized  Mexicans  are  all  Europeans  or  of 
European  blood,  does  not  at  all  square  with 
the  facts.  Padre  Sahagun  speaks  of  the 
men  who  were  associated  with  him  in  reduc- 
ing the  Indian  language  and  history  to  writ- 
ing as  “ very  intelligent  men,”  and  he  deals 
with  them  and  their  work  quite  as  deferen- 
tially as  though  they  had  shared  with  him 
the  best  culture  of  the  Europe  of  his  day. 

Famous  Indians.  And  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  from  the  very  beginning  the  natives 
were  forced  into  a position  of  subjection  and 
inferiority,  were  denied  intellectual  training 
and  many  civil  and  social  rights,  there  has 
never  been  a period  in  Mexico’s  history  with- 
out its  distinguished  men  of  Indian  stock — 


The  Country  and  People  23 

poets,  painters,  statesmen,  warriors, — who 
rose  by  sheer  ability  against  the  vast  handi- 
cap that  bore  them  back,  and  took  their 
places  among  the  great  ones  of  their  country. 
The  famous  patriot,  constitutionalist,  and 
President,  Benito  Juarez,  probably  Mexico’s 
very  greatest  man,  was  a full-blood  Mix- 
tec  Indian,  a shepherd  boy  who  did  not 
learn  Spanish  till  he  was  fourteen  years  old. 
Many  other  illustrious  names  stand  with  his 
on  the  roll  of  fame.  And  in  addition  the 
common  experience  of  everyday  life  has 
shown  over  and  over  again  that  in  essential 
human  worth  the  native,  so  long  despised,  is 
not  a whit  inferior  to  those  who  by  the  acci- 
dent of  better  arms  once  subjugated  him. 
Long  ago,  therefore,  it  came  about  that  no 
Mexican  is  ashamed  of  Indian  blood ; rather, 
he  is  proud  of  it.  A notion  common  in  the 
United  States,  that  you  compliment  a Mexi- 
can by  calling  him  a Spaniard,  provokes 
south  of  the  Rio  Grande  only  a broad  smile. 

The  Mestizos.  The  people  of  mixed  blood, 
about  half  of  the  total  population,  are  the 
farmers,  the  artisans,  the  traders,  servants, 
miners,  laborers,  and  too  often  loafers, 
of  the  villages,  farms,  cities,  and  towns  of 
the  great  central  plateau.  It  is  mostly  they, 
rather  than  the  real  Indians,  who  are  the 


24 


Mexico  To-Day 


peons  of  whom  we  have  heard  so  much. 
This  word,  in  ordinary  usage  in  Mexico,  sim- 
ply means  an  unskilled  laborer.  Its  technical 
meaning  is  due  to  certain  industrial  laws 
and  customs  long  prevailing  in  that  country, 
but  now,  thanks  to  President  Diaz,  largely 
abolished. 

Moral  Tendencies.  No  railing  accusation  is 
to  be  brought  against  a whole  nation  nor 
even  against  a whole  class  in  a nation.  It 
is  unfortunately  true,  nevertheless,  that  the 
law  that  people  of  mixed  blood  tend  to  in- 
herit the  vices  of  both  sides  of  their  ancestry, 
rather  than  the  virtues,  has  operated  in  Mex- 
ico. Deprived  of  any  fixed  social  standing, 
with  no  certain  avenues  of  development  open 
to  them,  their  wits  sharpened  by  contact  with 
civilizing  conditions  but  lacking  the  correc- 
tion of  formal  education,  their  religion  a mat- 
ter of  form  and  show,  their  morbid  taste  for 
gambling  and  dissipating  amusements  given 
free  rein,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  mesti- 
zos of  Mexico  have  often  been  a turbulent 
and  unruly  element  in  the  body  politic.  They 
have  differed  from  the  Indian  largely  in  be- 
ing without  the  pressure  of  his  conservative 
social  and  domestic  traditions. 

A Middle  Class.  The  mestizos  or  mixed 
bloods  are  the  typical  Mexicans  of  to-day. 


The  Country  and  People  25 

The  chances  are  pretty  nearly  ten  to  one  that 
any  chance  Mexican  encountered  is  a man 
who  is  neither  all  Indian  nor  all  Spaniard. 
The  question  of  blood  matters  little  to  them, 
and  should  matter  little  to  us.  They  are  the 
great  body  of  the  people  of  their  country, 
that  should  be,  and  that  doubtless  soon  will 
be,  the  great  middle  class.  For  a long  time 
Mexico  had  no  middle  class:  only  the  rich 
and  the  poor — very  rich  and  very  poor.  To- 
day is  changing  that.  Freedom,  public 
schools,  modern  industrialism,  better  wages, 
open  fields  of  opportunity,  the  stirring  of  a 
new  intellectual  awakening,  the  leaven  of  the 
gospel  are  elements  that  are  swiftly  building 
up  a middle  class,  independent,  self-support- 
ing, self-respecting,  intelligent,  moral.  If 
only  the  ambitions  of  politicians  would  allow 
the  country  to  remain  at  peace,  in  another 
generation  the  work  could  largely  be  done 
and  the  future  of  Mexico  assured.  No  demo- 
cratic government  can  persist  unless  it  rests 
on  a great  body  of  such  middle  class  people. 
And  once  such  a people  comes  to  feel  its 
strength,  no  government  but  a democratic 
government  will  be  permitted  by  it. 

The  Spanish  Stock.  The  pure-blood  Spanish 
stock,  in  so  far  as  it  now  forms  anything  like 
a class,  is  confined  to  the  very  wealthy  fami- 


26 


Mexico  To-Day 


lies.  The  men  of  this  class  are  usually  edu- 
cated, cultured,  agreeable.  They  have  trav- 
eled widely  and  they  exhibit  the  fine  traits 
bred  by  an  affluent  civilization.  When  they 
have  so  chosen  they  have  usually  been  the 
governing  class  in  Mexico.  Under  republi- 
can institutions  this  state  of  things  is  rapidly 
ceasing.  The  public  schools  during  thirty- 
five  years  of  peace  have  already  turned  out 
a whole  generation  of  young  fellows,  many 
of  them  representing  nothing  at  all  of  family 
prestige,  who  are  taking  their  places  beside 
the  men  of  the  old  ruling  class  and  sharply 
competing  with  them  in  leadership.  And  be- 
sides, in  these  descendants  of  the  hidalgos, 
three  centuries  of  luxury  has  bred  a good 
deal  of  distaste  for  the  moil  of  politics,  and 
sapped  in  some  measure  that  physical  vi- 
tality which  is  still  so  ample  in  the  sons  of 
the  people.  Thus  there  is  in  the  modern 
political  and  social  life  of  Mexico  a leveling 
down  as  well  as  a leveling  up.  And  in  so  far 
as  this  concerns  privilege  and  power,  none 
need  of  course  regret  it.  The  day  of  gov- 
ernment by  the  people,  the  plain  people,  the 
common  people,  is  dawning  in  all  the  world. 

Spaniard  and  Indian.  The  relations  between 
the  Spanish  conquerors  and  their  successors 
and  the  natives  of  Mexico  make  an  interest- 


The  Countby  and  People  27 

ing  study.  At  times  one  smiles  at  it,  more 
often  he  grieves.  The  attitude  of  mind  of 
the  early  Spanish  colonists  comes  out  in  a 
curious  phrase  which  they  employed  to  dis- 
tinguish themselves  from  the  natives.  They 
and  their  children  were  spoken  of  as  “ gente 
de  razon,”  to  distinguish  them  from  the  In- 
dians, mere  “ indigenas.”  The  phrase  prob- 
ably came  into  use  as  the  equivalent  of 
“ educated  ” or  “ cultured  ” people.  But  it 
literally  means  “ people  of  reason,”  the  im- 
plication being  that  the  Indians  were  without 
reason.  Indeed  some  of  the  early  military 
governors,  who  did  not  like  the  way  the  mis- 
sionaries stood  up  for  the  natives,  argued 
against  all  missionary  work  among  them  on 
the  ground  that  they  had  no  souls.  Such  ob- 
jections were  once  made  in  our  own  country 
against  religious  work  among  the  Negroes. 

A Great  Indian.  Judge  Ignacio  Altamirano, 
one  of  Mexico’s  greatest  literary  leaders,  a 
lover  of  Shakespeare  and  fond  of  English 
literature  generally,  died  a few  years  ago  in 
Paris,  where  he  was  consul-general  for  Mex- 
ico. He  was  a full-blood  Indian,  and  thor- 
oughly typical  physically, — dark,  slight,  with 
a large  face  and  dainty  hands  and  feet.  He 
used  to  tell  with  considerable  humor  how  he 
came  to  get  his  start  educationally.  In  the 


28 


Mexico  To-Day 


school  of  the  village  where  he  lived  a strict 
distinction  was  kept  up  between  Indians  and 
“ people  of  reason,”  and  only  the  children 
of  the  latter  were  admitted.  But  in  the 
course  of  time  his  father,  a sturdy  Indian, 
was  elected  alcalde  or  mayor  of  the  town. 
His  mother,  who  had  already  prepared 
for  her  little  boy  an  abecedario — the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  on  a shingle — put  in 
a claim  at  once  that  since  his  father  was 
now  a public  official,  Ignacio  had  become 
“ gente  de  razon.”  The  teacher  of  the 
school  was  somewhat  nonplussed  at  this  new 
argument,  but  concluded  that  it  would  be 
wise  to  decide  the  matter  in  the  way  that 
would  compliment  the  alcalde.  So  Ignacio 
got  into  the  primary  school,  was  recognized 
as  “ gente  de  razon,”  and  amply  proved  it 
by  becoming,  so  far  as  the  record  shows,  the 
school’s  one  distinguished  pupil. 

Peonage.  In  spite  of  this  lordly  and  some- 
times contemptuous  attitude,  the  Spaniard 
was  often  a kind  master.  On  the  great  plan- 
tations conditions  prevailed  almost  identical 
with  those  in  the  South  of  our  own  country 
during  slavery  days.  The  peons  of  a 
hacienda  were  enslaved  in  a somewhat  worse 
way  than  if  they  had  been  bought  as  chattels. 
Chattel  slaves  are  always  well  cared  for  be- 


The  Country  and  People  29 

cause  they  are  actual  property.  Peonage 
was  a kind  of  industrial  slavery  in  which  it 
was  the  man’s  labor  that  was  pawned  and  not 
his  person.  Hence  the  master,  unless  he  was 
a man  of  heart,  felt  no  responsibility  for  the 
well-being,  physical  or  moral,  of  the  hands 
on  his  place.  This  manner  of  life  went  on, 
let  it  not  be  forgotten,  for  three  hundred 
years.  No  wonder  that  it  scored  furrows  in 
the  social  fabric  of  Mexico  so  deep  that  a 
hundred  years  of  freedom  and  of  industrial 
improvement  have  not  yet  wiped  them  all 
out. 

Summary.  Such  is  Mexico  and  such  are  her 
people.  It  is  a land  of  contrasts,  of  warm 
valleys  lush  with  orchid  and  palm  and  of  chill 
reaches  of  rocky  and  pine-clad  mountains;  of 
smiling  skies  and  of  forbidding  desert  lands ; 
of  rugged,  sawlike  mountain  ranges  and  wide 
and  shimmering  plain ; of  snow-crowned 
peaks  that  look  down  eighteen  thousand  feet 
to  tropic  seas — a contrast  found  nowhere 
else  in  the  world;  of  careless,  boundless 
wealth  beside  hopeless  penury;  of  culture, 
complete  and  modern,  in  contact  with  piteous 
ignorance.  It  is  a land  of  long  past  yester- 
days but  also  of  a bright  to-morrow.  It  has 
one  school  which  was  founded  a hundred 
years  before  Harvard.  Its  prehistoric  re- 


30 


Mexico  To-Day 


mains  rival  Egypt.  Yet  it  is  a playground 
and  a field  of  exploitation  for  the  restless 
spirits  of  the  twentieth  century.  It  is  the 
Old  World  in  the  New.  It  is  the  Egypt  of 
the  Occident.  It  is  a land  of  dreams  and  of 
gracious  realities.  It  needs  the  gospel,  it 
loves  the  gospel,  it  must  have  the  gospel. 
And  since  it  is  so  near  to  us,  who  better  than 
we  can  be  good  Samaritans  to  this  wounded 
and  needy  neighbor  lying  beside  our  way! 


POLITICAL  EVOLUTION 


% 


Looking  back  over  nearly  four  hundred  years,  we  find 
it  difficult  morally  to  justify  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  and 
yet  we  must,  in  fairness,  give  to  the  conquerors  what  little 
credit  is  their  due.  Cortes  showed  a measure  of  wisdom 
and  policy  at  the  first  encounter  with  the  natives.  When 
he  reached  Cozumel,  he  learnt  that  one  of  his  captains, 
Pedro  de  Alvarado,  had  entered  the  temples  and  stripped 
them  of  their  ornaments  and  all  things  of  value.  Alva- 
rado’s violent  conduct  had  so  terrified  the  simple  people 
that  they  fled  into  the  interior  of  the  island. 

Cortes  was  exceedingly  angry,  for  the  act  of  his  sub- 
ordinate was  so  contrary  to  the  course  he  had  determined 
upon.  He  reprimanded  the  captain  publicly,  made  a care- 
ful explanation  to  the  prisoners  whom  Alvarado  had  seized, 
gave  them  many  presents,  and  sent  them  to  explain  matters 
to  their  friends.  This  humane  policy  succeeded ; the  natives 
returned  and  amicable  relations  were  established. 

Mexican  civilization  is  known  to  be  one  of  great  antiquity. 
It  was,  too,  of  a high  order  even  when  the  Spaniards  first 
came  in  touch  with  it;  although  there  are  irrefutable 
evidences  that  it  had  been  lowered  from  the  higher  plane 
it  had  attained  in  previous  times.  But  of  the  earliest  in- 
habitants of  that  country,  practically  nothing  is  known. 
The  ruins  which  are  scattered  all  over  the  land  indicate 
conclusively,  both  by  their  size  and  by  their  character, 
that  the  work  of  those  who  precede  by  ages  the  Aztecs 
of  Spanish  days,  was  of  an  order  which  connotes  high 
civilization.  The  unsolvable  mystery  which  surrounds  the 
prehistoric  builders  of  those  monuments  is,  even  now,  in- 
creased by  the  discovery,  from  time  to  time,  of  strange 
relics. — Joseph  King  Goodrich. 


CHAPTER  II 


POLITICAL  EVOLUTION 

Three  Periods.  The  romantic  tinge  which 
seems  inseparable  from  all  things  Mexican 
throws  its  haze  especially  upon  the  history 
of  the  country.  That  history  is  divided  into 
three  great  sections,  the  Indian  or  pre-Span- 
ish epoch,  the  colonial  or  viceregal  period, 
lasting  three  centuries,  and  the  period  of  in- 
dependence, measuring  now  practically  a 
century.  The  Aztec-Toltec  days  belong 
rather  to  the  sphere  of  romance  than  to  that 
of  history;  the  hundred  years  of  political 
freedom  have  been  a perfect  kaleidoscope  of 
change;  and  even  the  long  and  somnolent 
days  of  the  viceroys  have  an  atmosphere 
about  them  that  is  strangely  fascinating. 

1.  Early  Indian  Period 

Montezuma’s  Empire.  A melancholy  interest 
attaches  to  the  “ empire  ” of  Montezuma.  It 
was  doubtless  a much  less  complete  and  for- 
midable matter  than  some  of  the  Spanish 

33 


34 


Mexico  To-Day 


chroniclers  would  have  us  believe.  Other- 
wise it  could  scarcely  have  vanished  so  sud- 
denly and  so  completely.  Yet  it  evidently 
was  a fairly  well-organized  government,  with 
a standing  army,  a system  of  revenue,  and 
some  of  the  elements  of  a civil  service. 
Swift  runners  carried  news  over  the  moun- 
tains to  and  from  the  capital  and  kept  the 
king  in  touch  with  the  affairs  of  his  realm. 
The  capital  itself  was,  for  its  time,  a sub- 
stantially built  city  and  fortress,  with  its 
temples,  its  palaces,  and  its  barracks,  much 
after  the  manner  of  well-ordered  civiliza- 
tions. 

Government  Centers.  Besides  the  Aztec  king- 
dom with  Tenochtitlan  (now  Mexico  City)  for 
its  capital,  there  was  a center  of  government 
in  Tlascala  and  another  in  the  west  among 
the  Tarasco  Indians.  The  Spaniards  struck 
boldly  at  the  heads  of  all  these,  reduced  their 
chiefs  to  vassalage,  swept  their  fragile  or- 
ganization into  oblivion,  substituting  the  iron 
rule  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  and  even  ob- 
literated many  of  their  thatched  adobe 
“ cities,”  scattering  the  inhabitants  to  moun- 
tain fastnesses  or  gathering  them  into  other 
centers  established  by  themselves. 

Conquest  of  Mexico.  The  story  of  the  con- 
quest has  been  often  told.  Hernando  Cor- 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood.  N.  T. 

PREHISTORIC  REMAINS 


Calendar  Stone  Discovered  1790 
Hall  of  Mosaics 


Political  Evolution 


35 


tez,  a Spanish  soldier  of  fortune,  effected  a 
landing  at  Vera  Cruz  with  a small  body  of 
troops.  Cutting  himself  loose  from  superior 
officers  in  Cuba  and  Spain  and  with  a com- 
mission granted  by  the  municipality  of  Vera 
Cruz,  a “ city  ” lately  founded  by  himself, 
he  set  out  with  four  hundred  infantry,  fifteen 
cavalry  and  six  small  cannon,  to  take  toll  of 
the  immense  wealth  which  he  had  heard  was 
stored  up  in  the  Aztec  kingdom.  The  driv- 
ing force  of  all  the  Spanish  expeditions  in 
the  sixteenth  century  was  what  the  Latin 
poet  calls  the  auri  sacra  fames,  the  accursed 
hunger  for  gold.  The  Indians  could  not  un- 
derstand why  the  invaders  set  such  stock  by 
this  metal.  For  them  it  was  only  one  of  sev- 
eral, useful  for  some  things  and  rather 
pretty  but  of  no  special  value.  One  of  their 
chiefs  onc<&  questioned  a Spanish  soldier 
about  this.  The  grim  old  warrior  said, 
“ Well,  the  truth  is,  all  of  us  Europeans  suf- 
fer from  a secret  and  deadly  disease  for 
which  gold  is  the  only  known  remedy!  ” 

How  Victory  Came.  After  heavy  fighting  in 
and  about  Mexico  City  (then  surrounded  by 
the  waters  of  Lake  Texcoco)  Montezuma,  who 
had  fallen  largely  under  the  influence  of  the 
Spaniards,  was  killed,  probably  by  his  own 
people,  if  not  by  his  own  kin.  His  nephew, 


36 


Mexico  To-Day 


the  youthful  warrior  Cuauhtemoc,  later  be- 
came the  eleventh  and  last  Aztec  emperor. 
He  was  a brave  and  patriotic  young  man  who 
drove  the  Spaniards  out  of  the  city  and  made 
the  outcome  of  the  invasion  doubtful.  But 
Cortez,  reenforced  from  Vera  Cruz  and  Cuba 
and  taking  advantage  of  the  waters  of  the 
lake  on  which  he  placed  several  small  ves- 
sels, completed  the  work  of  capturing  the 
city  in  1521.  Cuauhtemoc  was  made  pris- 
oner, cruelly  tormented  by  having  his  feet 
tied  over  a fire  to  make  him  give  up  fan- 
cied treasures,  and  later  put  to  death.  So 
came  to  an  end  the  first  period  of  the  coun- 
try’s history.  Nobody  knows  how  or  when 
it  began. 

2.  Period  of  Spain 

Viceregal  Period  Begins.  After  a few  years 
of  military  government,  under  Cortez  and 
others,  a representative  of  the  Spanish 
crown  was  sent  out  as  viceroy, — the  first  one, 
Antonio  de  Mendoza,  arriving  in  the  fall  of 
1535.  In  the  two  hundred  and  eighty-six 
years  from  that  date  to  the  establishment  of 
independence,  in  1821,  there  were  sixty-four 
viceroys — some  good,  some  bad.  The  term 
of  office  was  irregular,  usually  from  three  to 
six  years.  The  viceroys  had  practically  un- 


Political,  Evolution 


37 


limited  power,  but  they  were  subject  to  the 
whim  of  the  Spanish  king,  who  could  depose 
and  recall  them  at  will.  There  was  in  Spain 
also  a royal  council  called  El  Consejo  de  las 
Indias,  and  in  Mexico  an  Audiencia  or  royal 
auditing  committee.  Both  these  bodies  su- 
pervised the  administration  of  the  viceroys 
and  served  to  put  a check  on  any  exceptional 
tyranny  or  avarice.  Nevertheless  it  seemed 
to  be  considered  one  of  the  perquisites  of  the 
position  that  the  viceroy  should  enrich  him- 
self. He  was  master  of  the  financial  admin- 
istration of  a large  and  productive  province. 
His  salary,  eighteen  thousand  dollars  a year 
at  first,  was  later  placed  at  forty  thousand 
dollars.  By  farming  out  the  taxation,  sell- 
ing special  grants  and  privileges,  and,  in 
spite  of  constant  surveillance,  occasionally 
tampering  with  the  bookkeeping,  most  of  the 
viceroys  managed,  even  after  a brief  term,  to 
return  rich  to  Spain. 

Days  of  the  Viceroys.  There  were  of  course 
developments  in  the  national  life  of  Mexico 
during  the  three  centuries  of  the  viceregal 
period,  despite  the  overpowering  monotony 
of  it.  Social  and  industrial  relations  gradu- 
ally adjusted  themselves,  the  monastic  and 
other  religious  organizations  flourished  im- 
mensely, a steady  stream  of  wealth  from 


38 


Mexico  To-Day 


mine  and  farm  was  poured  into  the  lap  of  the 
mother  country;  cities  and  haciendas  were 
established  and  mines  opened;  social  lines 
were  drawn  and  hardened  into  traditions; 
generations  were  born,  flourished,  and  passed 
away.  Yet  through  it  all  there  was  an  as- 
tonishing dead  level  of  uneventfulness. 
And  this  all  went  on  for  three  full  centuries. 
It  scored  some  deep  lines  in  the  national 
character.  It  made  the  rich  richer  and  the 
poor  poorer.  It  bred  a profound  fatalism 
in  the  minds  of  the  downtrodden  natives. 
Their  helplessness  was  so  manifest  and  the 
power  of  their  overlords  so  absolute  that 
resistance  was  unthought  of  and  submissive- 
ness became  a habit  of  mind  as  well  as  of 
life.  It  will  be  well  to  keep  this  in  mind 
when  considering  the  third  and  most  recent 
great  period  in  Mexico’s  political  develop- 
ment, a period  which  has  not  yet  reached  its 
final  culmination. 

Influence  of  American  and  French  Kevolutions. 
The  breaking  away  of  the  American  colonies 
from  England,  followed  by  the  profound  up- 
heaval of  the  French  revolution,  infused  even 
into  the  contented  and  submissive  peoples  of 
Spanish  America  a sense  of  unrest.  The 
doctrine  of  the  rights  of  man  as  against  the 
divine  right  of  kings  gradually  made  its  way 


Political  Evolution 


39 


throughout  the  world.  In  a general  way  no 
peoples  are  readier  to  be  governed  than  those 
of  Spanish  America — for  a certain  similarity 
of  national  type  pervades  them  all.  They 
are  inherently  docile,  and  they  have  had  long 
and  rigorous  training  in  obedience.  Even 
yet,  after  a hundred  years  of  independence, 
they  prefer  a government  that  is  stern  and 
unbending.  It  was  not  against  the  king  as 
such,  nor  against  monarchical  forms  of  gov- 
ernment only,  that  they  felt  impelled  to  rise 
up.  Eeligious  and  industrial  conditions  had 
become  quite  as  intolerable  as  foreign  po- 
litical domination. 

A Republic  the  Ideal.  Nothing  in  the  history 
of  Mexico  is  finer  than  the  stubborn  deter- 
mination with  which,  against  inconceivable 
odds  of  discouragement,  the  people  of  that 
country  have  held  on  to  their  shining  ideal 
of  a popular  government.  Twice  since  get- 
ting clear  of  the  Spanish  throne  they  have 
had  to  throw  down  other  thrones,  set  up  on 
their  own  soil.  Over  and  over  their  military 
leaders  have  arbitrarily  set  aside  constitu- 
tion and  law,  and  even  their  properly  chosen 
presidents  have  again  and  again  transformed 
themselves  into  dictators.  Constitutional 
government  has  repeatedly  been  interrupted 
by  revolutionary  uprisings,  putting  soldiers 


40 


Mexico  To-Day 


instead  of  civilians  in  supreme  command. 
Once  foreign  troops  were  sent  to  bolster  up 
an  imperial  throne.  Three  separate  consti- 
tutions have  been  promulgated.  The  educa- 
tion and  training  of  the  common  people  for 
the  exercise  of  their  citizenship  have  gone 
forward  with  excruciating  slowness.  Yet  in 
all  this  long  and  weary  struggle,  measuring 
now  a full  century,  the  heart  of  Mexico  has 
beat  true  to  its  ideal — a government  of  the 
people,  for  the  people,  by  the  people.  And 
the  friends  of  that  country  are  glad  to  be- 
lieve that  the  ideal  is  nearer  its  realization 
now  than  ever  before. 

How  the  Revolution  Began.  "When  revolu- 
tionary groups  began  to  be  formed  in  Mex- 
ico, in  the  dawning  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  not  a few  priests  became  members 
of  them.  To  one  that  had  its  headquarters 
in  the  city  of  Queretaro  belonged  Miguel  Hi- 
dalgo, parish  priest  of  the  village  of  Dolores, 
state  of  Guanajuato.  Hidalgo  had  been  edu- 
cated at  the  Colegio  de  San  Nicolas,  in 
Valladolid  (now  Morelia),  the  oldest  college 
in  America.  He  was  a progressive  and  phil- 
anthropic man.  As  parish  priest  he  had 
been  much  annoyed  by  the  interference  of 
the  government  with  his  efforts  to  teach  his 
people  horticulture.  He  found  the  restric- 


Political  Evolution 


41 


tions  on  raising  grapes  especially  vexatious, 
having  already  taught  his  people  silk-worm 
and  bee  culture,  besides  establishing  an 
earthenware  factory  and  otherwise  advanc- 
ing their  worldly  interests  while  ministering 
to  them  in  spiritual  things.  These  experi- 
ences made  him  all  the  more  active  as  an  agi- 
tator against  the  government. 

The  Uprising  of  1810.  By  the  autumn  of 
1810  the  plans  of  the  Queretaro  group  to 
which  Hidalgo  belonged  had  gone  to  the 
length  of  setting  a date  for  an  uprising 
against  the  Spanish  government.  But  in  Sep- 
tember one  or  two  members  of  the  band  of 
conspirators,  through  motives  which  history 
does  not  disclose,  gave  information  to  the 
government  of  what  was  going  on,  together 
with  the  names  of  all  concerned. 

The  Famous  Grito.  Hearing  of  this  rumor, 
the  priest’s  loyal  friends  and  supporters  in 
the  village  were  hastily  sent  for,  and  in  the 
cool  September  dawn  a group  of  men,  humble 
laborers  and  farmers,  whose  names  Mexican 
history  proudly  preserves,  soon  gathered 
about  the  curato  or  priest’s  house.  The  vil- 
lage prison  was  forced  and  the  political 
prisoners  set  free.  It  was  Sunday  morning, 
and  when  the  parish  bell  called  to  mass  it 
rang  out  a call  to  liberty  which  echoes  yet. 


42 


Mexico  To-Day 


For,  when  the  people  came,  they  learned  what 
was  going  on,  and  the  patriot-priest  lifted  up 
his  ever-memorable  “ grito  ” (cry)  of  “ Viva 
la  Independencia.”  In  a few  weeks  his  fel- 
lows were  dissipated  and  he  a prisoner. 
Within  less  than  a year  he  was  tried,  con- 
demned, and  executed.  Thus  dramatically 
was  launched  the  movement  which,  though  it 
seemed  soon  to  be  blotted  out  in  blood,  never 
stopped  till  Mexico  was  free. 


3.  Period  of  the  Republic 

Freedom  and  Its  Eesponsibilities.  For  ten 
years  the  revolutionary  movement  thus  be- 
gun struggled  on.  At  last  it  was  successful 
more  by  the  inefficiency  of  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment, which  had  been  shaken  to  its  center 
by  the  Napoleonic  intervention,  than  by  any 
inherent  force  of  its  own.  The  story  is  too 
long  to  follow  here,  but  by  1821,  exactly  three 
hundred  years  after  the  victory  of  Cortez, 
Mexico  was  once  more  free  from  Spain.  A 
so-called  empire  under  Iturbide  was  set  up 
only  to  be  thrown  down  by  a storm  of  ad- 
verse public  sentiment.  In  1824  the  first 
constitution,  modeled  largely  upon  that  of 
the  United  States,  was  proclaimed.  That  it 
did  not  “ march  ” was  due  chiefly  to  two 


Political  Evolution 


43 


fundamental  difficulties:  the  ignorance  and 
illiteracy  of  the  people,  and  the  persistent 
hostility  of  the  Catholic  Church  to  popular 
government.  To  these  one  is  forced  to  add 
a third,  namely,  the  unregulated  ambitions 
of  leading  soldiers  and  politicians.  During 
about  fifty  years,  only  two  or  three  of  over 
twenty  changes  of  administration  were  made 
peaceably  and  in  regular  course  by  the  ex- 
piration of  terms  of  service.  The  rest  were 
all  more  or  less  violent  “ revolutions.” 
Republic  of  Texas.  The  one  noteworthy  in- 
cident of  that  period,  breaking  the  long  mo- 
notony of  rather  sordid  revolutions  and 
counter-revolutions,  was  the  secession  of 
Texas  and  the  resulting  war  with  the  United 
States.  The  fertile  plains  of  Texas,  then  a 
part  of  the  Mexican  state  of  Coahuila,  had 
attracted  many  American  settlers.  The  fre- 
quent changes  in  the  Mexican  government 
and  the  lax  and  often  offensively  military  ad- 
ministration of  public  affairs,  added  to  race 
antagonisms  which  were  augmented  by  mu- 
tual ignorance  of  languages  and  customs, 
caused  these  colonists  in  Texas  to  chafe  at 
their  subjection  to  Mexico.  In  1835  they  or- 
ganized to  assist  the  Mexican  Liberals 
against  Santa  Anna,  who  had  proclaimed 
himself  dictator.  The  dictator  himself  led 


44 


Mexico  To-Day 


in  the  attempt  to  subdue  this  uprising.  After 
a good  deal  of  stubborn  fighting  the  Mexican 
troops  were  defeated  and  driven  out.  The 
Texans  then  declared  their  independence, 
which  was  recognized  by  the  United  States. 
They  organized  a republic,  and  about  ten 
years  later  the  request  of  that  republic  to  be 
admitted  as  a state  of  the  American  Union 
was  granted. 

War  Brought  On.  This  was  displeasing  to 
Mexico,  since  some  hope  had  still  been  cher- 
ished there  of  reconquering  the  rebellious 
province.  In  the  meantime  serious  disagree- 
ment with  Mexico  had  come  up  in  connection 
with  the  settlement  of  American  citizens  in 
California.  A boundary  dispute,  inherited 
along  with  the  State  of  Texas,  added  to  the 
irritation,  Mexico  claiming  that  the  Nueces 
river  was  the  agreed  boundary  between  that 
country  and  Texas,  and  Texas  claiming  that 
it  was  the  Rio  Grande.  There  were  Ameri- 
can troops  in  the  disputed  territory  on  ac- 
count of  Indian  depredations,  and  a clash  be- 
tween them  and  the  Mexican  soldiers  was  the 
natural  outcome.  Thereupon  war  was  for- 
mally declared  by  the  American  Government 
(1845). 

Result  of  the  Fighting.  The  American  ar- 
mies rapidly  occupied  Monterey,  Vera  Cruz, 


Political  Evolution 


45 


and  the  capital  itself.  There  a treaty  was 
concluded  adverse  to  Mexico  in  most  re- 
spects. By  it  California,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona  were  added  to  the  territory  of  the 
United  States. 

Another  Constitution.  The  liberal  constitu- 
tion of  1824  had  later,  in  a period  of  reaction, 
been  abrogated  by  one  more  favorable  to  the 
conservative  interests.  But  the  long  ascend- 
ancy of  Santa  Anna,  lasting  about  twenty 
years,  had  served  to  set  aside  about  all  pre- 
tense of  constitutional  government.  Lead- 
ing patriots  were  beginning  to  plan  for  a 
revival  of  government  by  the  people.  The 
popular  general  was  finally  discredited  and 
banished.  A constitutional  convention  was 
called,  and  a new  constitution  framed.  It 
was  again  modeled  largely  upon  that  of  the 
United  States.  Liberty  of  worship,  the  sep- 
aration of  Church  and  state,  and  equality  be- 
fore the  law  were  guaranteed.  About  the 
same  time  a vigorous  mortmain  law,  aimed 
at  the  immense  real  estate  holdings  of  the 
Catholic  orders,  and  a law  abolishing  special 
courts  for  ecclesiastics  and  soldiers  were  en- 
acted. The  Church  saw  herself  about  to  lose 
at  a single  blow  the  special  legal  privileges 
of  her  clergy  and  the  great  properties  that 
enabled  her  to  defy  the  popular  will. 


46 


Mexico  To-Day 


A War  for  Reforms.  The  outcome  of  the 
proclamation  of  the  new  constitution  (Feb- 
ruary 5,  1857),  and  of  the  “ Reform  Laws  ” 
which  followed  it,  was  consequently  a ter- 
rible civil  war,  between  the  Church  party  on 
the  one  side  and  the  determined  patriot  lead- 
ers on  the  other.  Benito  Juarez,  a full-blood 
Mixtec  Indian,  was  at  the  time  president  of 
the  Supreme  Court.  This  was  then  an  elect- 
ive position,  carrying  with  it  the  succession 
to  the  presidency,  there  being  no  Vice  Presi- 
dent. Ignacio  Comonfort  was  President. 
His  sympathies  were  with  the  liberal  party, 
but  in  the  disturbances  which  arose  by  reason 
of  the  promulgation  of  the  liberal  constitu- 
tion he  was  gradually  drawn  into  an  equivo- 
cal position.  He  tried  to  harmonize  the  dis- 
cordant elements  and  soon  found  himself 
abandoned  by  both.  His  position  as  Presi- 
dent became  so  difficult  that  he  presently 
gave  up  the  struggle,  and,  without  the  for- 
mality of  resigning,  left  Mexico  for  the 
United  States.  The  Conservatives  had 
“ pronounced,”  adhering  to  General  Zuloaga 
as  President.  The  Liberals  recognized 
Juarez  as  succeeding  to  the  vacant  post,  un- 
der the  constitution. 

The  French  Intervention.  Following  this 
war,  which  was  terminated  after  lasting 


Political  Evolution 


47 


three  years  by  a decisive  victory  for  the 
Juarez  government,  came  the  episode  of 
the  French  Intervention,  as  it  is  commonly 
described.  Certain  leaders  of  the  Church 
party,  whose  tastes  were  for  monarchy 
rather  than  republicanism,  succeeded,  with 
the  help  of  Louis  Napoleon  of  France,  in  per- 
suading Archduke  Maximilian  of  Austria,  a 
younger  brother  of  Emperor  Francis  Joseph, 
that  the  people  of  Mexico  desired  him  to 
come  and  set  up  there  a “ Catholic  mon- 
archy.” He  was  an  intelligent  and  high- 
minded  young  man,  happily  married  to  the 
beautiful  princess,  Charlotte  (Carlotta)  of 
Belgium.  He  was  naturally  doubtful  and 
even  reluctant  in  regard  to  the  strange  pro- 
posal. His  brother  and  his  mother  dis- 
suaded him.  But  the  French  king  had  in 
the  meantime  become  embroiled  with  Mexico 
over  a question  concerning  certain  debts  due 
French  creditors  by  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment. With  no  sufficient  reason,  and  disre- 
garding terms  of  settlement  satisfactory  to 
both  England  and  Spain,  which  governments 
had  had  similar  claims,  Napoleon  landed 
troops  in  Mexico  and  began  an  attempt  to 
humiliate  the  people  and  government  there. 
Under  the  direction  of  his  armies  a so-called 
popular  vote  in  favor  of  the  coming  of  Maxi- 


48 


Mexico  To-Day 


milian  was  secured,  and  by  means  of  this  and 
by  the  promise  on  Napoleon’s  part  of  French 
troops  to  sustain  his  throne,  Maximilian  was 
at  last  persuaded.  What  the  motive  of  Na- 
poleon was  is  not  clear,  though  as  he  made 
large  loans  to  Maximilian  for  the  setting  up 
of  his  throne,  it  seems  fair  to  suppose  that 
he  counted  on  getting  control  of  the  wealth 
of  Mexico,  a source  of  income  which  he  prob- 
ably overestimated. 

Empire  or  Republic?  So  at  length  (June, 
1864)  the  new  king  and  queen  came  to  Mex- 
ico in  great  state.  The  French  troops,  aided 
by  the  rebellious  conservatives,  had  driven 
President  Juarez  and  his  cabinet  from  his 
capital.  In  the  north  of  the  republic,  how- 
ever, defended  by  the  ragged,  ill-fed  patriot 
soldiers  and  sustained  by  the  sturdy  adher- 
ence of  the  members  of  his  official  family — 
“ los  Inmaculados  ” (“  the  Spotless  ”)  they 
came  to  be  called — the  little  Indian  President 
held  out  stubbornly,  perpetuating  the  duly 
chosen  government  of  the  people.  The  in- 
troduction of  a foreign  ruler  really  worked 
to  the  strengthening  of  the  patriot  party. 
There  were  some  people  in  Mexico  who  were 
pleased  at  the  idea  of  having  a king,  and  the 
capital  was  very  gay.  But  the  heart  of  the 
Mexicans  at  large  rebelled  at  the  thought  of 


Political  Evolution  49 

a monarchy,  especially  under  a foreign 
prince. 

Another  War.  The  tide  of  war  rolled  back 
and  forth.  Gradually  the  resolute  patriots 
evolved  an  army — an  army  of  seasoned  vet- 
erans it  became.  Meantime  Napoleon  had 
nearly  got  into  trouble  with  the  United  States 
over  his  infringement  upon  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine. While  the  American  Civil  War  had 
been  in  progress  it  had  so  absorbed  the  atten- 
tion of  the  government  at  Washington  that 
little  notice  had  been  given  to  the  French 
king’s  course  in  Mexico.  But  after  peace 
had  been  established  at  home,  pressure  be- 
gan to  be  brought  at  once  for  the  retirement 
of  the  French  soldiers  from  American  soil. 
By  this  time,  also,  Napoleon  was  apparently 
glad  of  a pretext  for  taking  this  step.  Mex- 
ico was  not  proving,  the  treasure-house 
which  he  had  anticipated.  On  the  contrary, 
it  was  absorbing  huge  sums  of  money  with 
but  a poor  prospect  of  returning  even  inter- 
est on  the  outlay.  In  brutal  neglect  of  his 
promise  to  Maximilian  the  French  king 
withdrew  all  his  troops.  The  mercenaries 
wdiich  the  Prince  had  provided,  together 
with  such  Mexican  soldiers  as  would  espouse 
his  cause,  were  all  that  he  had  left  with 
which  to  resist  the  rising  tide  of  armed  pa- 


50 


Mexico  To-Day 


triotism,  flowing  in  upon  his  infant  throne 
from  every  side.  After  not  a little  vacilla- 
tion, going  once  so  far  as  to  write  out  his 
letter  of  abdication  and  start  for  Vera  Cruz, 
Maximilian  at  last  decided  to  remain  and 
take  his  chances  with  his  armies.  Carlotta 
had  gone  to  Europe  to  intercede  with  Napo- 
leon and  had  become  there — in  part  by  rea- 
son of  his  rough  reception  of  her — a raving 
maniac. 

Unhappy  Maximilian.  Leaving  Mexico  City 
Maximilian  joined  his  generals,  who  with  the 
principal  body  of  royal  troops  were  in  Quere- 
taro.  There  they  made  their  last  stand. 
The  city  was  taken  by  the  Liberals  under 
General  Escobedo,  May,  1867,  and  Maxi- 
milian was  captured.  After  a military  trial 
he  was  executed,  along  with  two  Mexican 
generals  who  had  led  his  armies,  June  19, 
1867. 

Reconstruction.  So  came  to  its  close  this 
strange  and  tragical  episode  of  American 
history.  Within  a few  weeks,  President 
Juarez,  acclaimed  by  the  people,  quietly  re- 
entered the  capital  of  the  nation,  and  once 
more  set  up  in  due  form  republican  govern- 
ment under  the  constitution.  The  proper 
time  for  a national  election  having  already 
passed,  one  was  held  as  soon  as  possible,  and 


Political  Evolution 


51 


Juarez  was  again  chosen  President.  That 
term,  beginning  with  1868,  was  a rather 
stormy  one.  The  country  was  impoverished, 
brigands  were  everywhere,  there  was  a large 
element  of  dissatisfied  royalists  among  the 
people,  and  other  ambitious  liberal  leaders 
were  jealous  and  suspicious.  This  dissatis- 
faction was  about  to  break  out  into  open  re- 
bellion after  Juarez,  as  it  was  alleged,  had 
rather  forced  his  election  for  another  term. 
But  early  in  that  period  he  died  (July  18, 
1872),  and  the  coming  into  the  presidency  of 
another,  Don  Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  the 
president  of  the  Supreme  Court,  quieted 
things  down  for  the  time.  But  when  in  1875 
he  also  stood  for  election  and,  making  rather 
free  use  of  the  federal  machinery,  was  de- 
clared winner,  the  patience  of  some  of  the 
other  liberal  leaders  was  exhausted  and  there 
were  “ pronouncements  ” on  every  side. 

The  Coming  of  Diaz.  The  most  notable  of 
the  opponents  of  Lerdo  was  a young  general 
who  had  attained  to  much  prominence  be- 
cause of  his  prowess  in  the  war  with  the 
French.  He  was  a native  of  the  same  state 
with  Juarez,  and  had  in  his  youth  read  law 
in  the  office  of  that  great  man.  But  the  logic 
of  events,  as  well  as  his  own  tastes,  had  made 
a soldier  rather  than  a lawyer  of  Porfirio 


52 


Mexico  To-Day 


Diaz.  Not  quite  old  enough  to  participate 
actively  in  the  conflict  with  the  United  States 
in  1847,  he  was  nevertheless  as  a boy  of  sev- 
enteen greatly  stirred  by  that  episode.  Very 
soon  afterward  he  somehow  incurred  the  hos- 
tility of  Santa  Anna,  then  dictator,  and  was 
driven  from  his  home  to  begin  a career  so 
incredibly  adventurous  that  the  plain  narra- 
tive of  it  seems  like  a product  of  the  imagina- 
tion. A little  later,  the  war  over  the  reform 
laws  broke  out,  Diaz,  of  course,  espousing 
the  cause  of  his  great  countryman,  Juarez, 
then  President.  This  war  was  barely  over 
when  the  French  invasion  made  another  de- 
mand on  the  patriotism  of  Mexican  soldiers. 
Diaz  plunged  into  this  conflict  with  burning 
energy,  and  by  his  boldness,  his  military 
skill,  and  his  personal  daring  soon  became 
one  of  the  trusted  leaders  of  the  Mexican  ar- 
mies. He  was  a subordinate  commander 
under  General  Zaragoza  at  Puebla  on  the 
famous  Fifth  of  May  (1862)  when  the 
French  veterans  were  for  the  first  time  met 
by  the  ragged  patriots  of  Mexico  and  de- 
cisively checked.  Not  quite  five  years  later, 
April  2,  1867,  as  general  in  command  he  him- 
self captured  this  same  city  of  Puebla,  anni- 
hilating one  of  the  armies  of  Maximilian  and 
bringing  the  capital  of  the  republic  once 


Political  Evolution  53 

more  into  the  power  of  the  republican  gov- 
ernment. 

A Successful  Uprising.  Diaz  felt  no  such  re- 
gard for  Lerdo  as  had  restrained  him  in  the 
case  of  Juarez,  and  so,  in  1875,  with  the  prin- 
ciple of  “no  reelection  ” as  his  motto,  he 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  His  old  com- 
rades flocked  to  him.  Lerdo,  who  was  not  a 
soldier,  was  swept  from  his  feet  by  the  sud- 
den uprising  and  soon  abandoned  his  post 
and  took  refuge  in  the  United  States.  Diaz 
proclaimed  an  election  and  was  made  Presi- 
dent. His  first  term  began  with  the  year 
1876.  He  quickly  proved  himself  as  able  as 
a ruler  as  he  had  been  successful  and  bril- 
liant as  a soldier. 

A Long  Administration.  The  administration 
of  President  Diaz  covered  what  may  be  called 
the  modern  period  of  Mexico’s  history.  As 
an  advocate  of  the  principle  of  no  reelection, 
General  Diaz  declined  to  be  a candidate  at 
the  end  of  his  first  term.  For  the  succeeding 
period,  1880-1884,  accordingly,  General  Man- 
uel Gonzales  was  made  President.  The  con- 
trast between  his  administration  and  that  of 
“ Don  Porfirio  ” was  so  sharp  that  before 
his  stormy  administration  came  to  a close 
the  demand  for  the  return  to  office  of  his 
popular  predecessor  was  general.  To  this 


54 


Mexico  To-Day 


demand  Diaz  acceded.  In  justification  of  his 
course  it  was  urged  that  the  “ no  reelec- 
tion ” declaration  bore  only  on  immediate 
succession,  and  was  meant  chiefly  to  correct 
the  abuse  of  employing  the  federal  ma- 
chinery to  influence  elections.  But  the  four 
year  term,  from  1884  to  1888,  proved  alto- 
gether too  short  for  the  carrying  out  of  all 
the  beneficent  and  popular  policies  inaugu- 
rated by  President  Diaz.  The  feeling  was 
practically  universal  at  its  end  that  he  ought 
to  continue  in  office. 

Diaz  Policies.  After  some  hesitation  he  con- 
sented. Pour  years  later  the  situation  was 
identical,  and  the  doctrine  of  “no  reelec- 
tion ” was  finally  set  aside.  Among  the  most 
vigorous  and  outspoken  advocates  of  this 
were  the  foreign  investors — merchants,  manu- 
facturers, railway  managers,  and  others — 
then  resident  in  Mexico.  Even  during  his 
first  administration,  General  Diaz  had  openly 
bid  for  the  investment  in  Mexico  of  foreign 
capital.  To  those  of  his  people  who  were 
opposed  to  such  a course  he  argued  that 
the  country  was  so  impoverished  by  its 
long  struggles,  and  its  little  remaining  capi- 
tal was  held  so  largely  by  people  opposed 
to  progress  and  in  love  with  the  old,  reac- 
tionary order  of  things,  that  if  Mexico’s 


PORFIEIO  DIAZ 


Political  Evolution 


55 


vast  resources  were  to  be  developed  and 
her  people  made  industrially  comfortable 
and  independent,  it  would  have  to  be  done 
largely  by  foreign  money.  And  he  went  right 
forward  with  his  policy,  opening  wide  the 
doors  for  capital.  Subsidies  were  given  for 
the  building  of  railway  lines — which  was  a 
military  as  well  as  an  economic  measure, — 
exemption  from  import  duties  was  offered 
for  factory  machinery,  relief  from  taxation 
during  specified  periods  was  guaranteed  to 
productive  industries,  and  foreigners  were 
given  ample  protection  for  life  and  property 
throughout  the  entire  republic. 

The  President  and  Foreigners.  The  President 
was  soon  found  to  be  especially  sensitive  in 
regard  to  religious  persecution  and  anti-for- 
eign demonstrations  of  any  kind.  He  felt 
that  such  things  compromised  the  standing 
of  his  country  in  the  eyes  of  the  civilized 
world.  He  therefore  insisted  on  perfect 
freedom  of  worship  everywhere  and  on  the 
proper  protection  of  all  foreigners.  The 
mobs  which  here  and  there  attacked  Protes- 
tants were  promptly  and  sternly  suppressed. 
It  is  not  amiss  to  recall  this  now,  since  much 
sentiment  against  General  Diaz  was  exhibited 
in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere,  toward 
the  end  of  his  long  tenure  of  power.  The  sup- 


56 


Mexico  To-Day 


pression  of  brigandage,  the  development  of 
industries,  especially  by  the  introduction  of 
foreign  capital,  the  improvement  of  commu- 
nication, the  abolishment  of  peonage,  the 
standardizing  of  the  currency,  the  encourage- 
ment of  education,  and  the  maintenance  of 
liberty  and  of  equality  before  the  law  are 
some  of  the  things  for  which  the  administra- 
tion of  Porfirio  Diaz  should  receive  credit. 

Not  Yet  a Republic.  Nevertheless,  many 
things  remained  undone.  The  constitution  of 
1857  was  not  formally  set  aside.  It  provides 
for  a government  similar  to  that  of  the  states 
and  union  of  the  United  States,  resting 
presumably  upon  an  intelligent  and  compe- 
tent popular  electorate.  But  where  were  the 
voters  to  be  found  in  Mexico?  From  sixty  to 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  people  were  illiterate. 
An  even  larger  proportion  had  been  trained 
for  four  hundrd  years  to  let  others  think  and 
act  for  them.  They  knew  nothing  and  cared 
nothing  for  public  affairs.  The  state  gov- 
ernments were  incapable  even  of  policing 
their  respective  territories.  If  allowed  to  be 
organized  by  local  influences — elections,  so- 
called,  which  usually  meant  the  domination 
of  a small  coterie  of  rich  landowners  or  un- 
scrupulous soldiers — they  speedily  became  a 
menace  to  the  central  government  or  an  en- 


Political  Evolution 


57 


gine  for  the  oppression  of  the  people.  Little 
by  little,  therefore,  the  stern  military  atmos- 
phere which  pervaded  the  federal  adminis- 
tration extended  itself  to  the  state  govern- 
ments, and  these  became  gradually  no  more 
than  departments  of  the  central  administra- 
tion. 

Taxation  and  Land  Question.  The  federal 
government  found  itself  unable  to  solve 
the  problems  of  taxation  and  land  ten- 
ure. Efforts  were  repeatedly  made  to  put 
a rate  of  taxation  upon  the  immense  hold- 
ings of  land  that  would  make  them  un- 
profitable and  thus  open  them  up  for  settle- 
ment by  small  farmers.  But  these  efforts 
failed.  The  federal  constitution  proved  an 
obstacle  here,  for  it  puts  matters  of  taxation 
into  the  hands  of  the  state  governments,  and 
these  were  invariably  in  the  hands  of  the 
large  landowners.  Taxation  has  in  conse- 
quence continued  to  be  inequitable  and  the 
land  is  still  held  in  huge  haciendas,  many  of 
them  nothing  like  so  well  improved  as  they 
should  be. 

Growing  Dissatisfaction.  Some  of  the  men  in 
the  later  cabinets  of  President  Diaz,  and  a 
number  of  those  acting  as  state  governors 
under  his  patronage,  have  been  men  of  great 
wealth.  They  are  landholders  on  a large 


58 


Mexico  To-Day 


scale,  and  many  of  them  have  aroused  resent- 
ment by  their  management  of  the  labor  prob- 
lem. In  the  case  of  one  or  two,  peonage,  in 
its  old  barbarous  form,  has  been  alleged, 
along  with  the  charge  that  they  have  used 
the  machinery  of  the  federal  government — 
soldiers,  railways,  and  other  agencies — for 
securing  and  holding  the  unwilling  and  un- 
happy laborers  who  toil  on  their  immense 
haciendas.  Favoritism  was  also  shown  to 
corporations  and  enterprises  in  which  these 
members  of  the  Diaz  government  or  their 
friends  were  directly  interested. 

The  People  Restless.  The  very  improvement 
in  the  economic  condition  of  the  laboring 
classes  made  the  people  restless.  For  cen- 
turies they  had  expected  nothing  and  had 
been  resigned  in  a dull  way  to  their  hard  lot. 
Now  at  last  better  things  began  to  seem  pos- 
sible. Wages  had  risen.  Their  children 
had  schools  to  attend.  Their  wants  com- 
menced to  multiply.  They  began  to  question 
and  to  investigate.  It  seemed  to  them  espe- 
cially inexplicable  that  a few  men  should 
have  a great  deal  more  land  than  they  needed 
or  could  improve,  while  others  by  the  score 
-were  at  hand,  wanting  land,  ready  to  till  it, 
but  unable  to  get  hold  of  it.  Equally  puz- 
zling was  the  difference  which  they  began  to 


Political  Evolution 


59 


note  between  the  proportionate  burden  of 
taxation  borne  by  the  rich  and  the  poor. 
The  poor  man  was  taxed  heavily,  the  rich 
man  lightly.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  was 
largely  a matter  of  state  legislation,  not  fed- 
eral; but  the  people,  who  knew  no  ruler  ex- 
cept “ Don  Porfirio,”  looked  to  him  for 
everything  and  blamed  him  for  what  went 
wrong  or  failed  to  go  right. 

Hostility  to  Church  Influence.  Another  source 
of  irritation,  more  profound  and  widespread 
than  any  outsider  could  suspect  or  discover, 
because  it  operated  so  secretly,  was  the  grow- 
ing power,  during  the  last  decade  especially, 
of  the  Catholic*  Church.  The  leaders  of  that 
Church,  secular  clergy1  and  Jesuits  working 
together,  made  a special  point  of  keeping  in 
touch  with  Mrs.  Diaz,  a devout  and  sprightly 
woman,  many  years  younger  than  her  hus- 
band. The  old  General’s  antagonism  to 
ecclesiastical  influence  in  politics  was  well 
known.  He  knew  who  had  caused  the  bloody 
war  over  the  Laws  of  Reform  and  who  had 
later  brought  on  the  French  Intervention 
with  its  long  list  of  woes.  He  had  fought  his 
way  through  both  those  wars.  He  under- 
stood better  than  his  own  countrymen  of  a 

1 Secular  clergy  are  those  not  separated  from  the  world  by 
monastic  vows  or  rules  ; for  example,  parish  priests. 


60 


Mexico  To-Day 


later  generation  the  ambitious  designs  of  the 
clergy  in  regard  to  matters  of  civil  govern- 
ment. When  asked  on  one  occasion  not 
many  years  ago  by  a company  of  Protestant 
missionaries  whether  the  rigid  laws  as  to  the 
holding  of  real  estate  by  churches  would  not 
some  time  be  relaxed,  he  shook  his  head. 
‘ ‘ It  would  be  all  well  enough  as  concerns  you 
gentlemen,”  he  replied,  “ but  we  have  to  be 
thinking  of  the  clergy  (el  clero) ; we  have 
had  experience  with  them — they  are  not  sat- 
isfied to  manage  their  Church  ; they  want  to 
run  the  government  too.” 

Disregard  of  Reform  laws.  But  either  be- 
cause he  himself  relaxed  somewhat  in  his 
attitude  as  old  age  came  on,  or  taking  advan- 
tage of  him  by  acting  without  his  knowledge, 
some  who  were  of  his  official  family  began  to 
show  great  deference  to  the  Church  authori- 
ties. These,  of  course,  promptly  took  ad- 
vantage of  it.  Convents  and  monasteries 
were  conducted  in  defiance  of  the  law,  Church 
schools  were  subsidized  from  public  funds, 
public  processions  were  brought  out,  unmo- 
lested by  the  police,  who  when  taxed  with 
their  neglect  shrugged  their  shoulders  and 
hinted  of  orders  from  “ higher  up.” 

Widespread  Uneasiness.  The  sense  of  un- 
easiness which  all  this  inspired  can  only  be 


Political,  Evolution 


61 


comprehended  by  one  who  has  entered  inti- 
mately into  the  life  of  the  Mexican  people, 
and  has  come  to  understand  how  deeply  dis- 
trustful they  are  of  Catholic  influence  in  pub- 
lic affairs.  The  men  of  the  country  are  a unit 
in  resenting  such  interference  and  almost 
equally  unanimous  in  pronouncing  adversely 
on  the  moral  character  and  standing  of  the 
priests.  The  sense  of  apprehension  lest 
through  the  inattention  of  an  old  man  whom 
personally  they  still  loved  and  admired,  the 
nightmare  of  ecclesiastical  oppression  should 
once  more  be  fastened  upon  their  country, 
became  so  acute  that  they  were  willing  to  de- 
mand that  this  same  honored  and  venerable 
ruler  go  into  exile  rather  than  run  the  risk. 

Madero  Revolution.  Such  were  the  elements 
that  led  up  to  and  entered  into  the  revolution 
of  1911.  It  was  not  in  any  proper  sense  a 
military  rebellion.  The  federal  army  had 
dwindled  down  to  a shell — thanks  to  dis- 
honest officers  and  the  long  peace  which  had 
made  an  army  superfluous.  The  insurgents, 
on  the  other  hand,  mustered  but  a few  hun- 
dred poorly  armed  and  inexperienced  re- 
cruits, and  not  a single  battle  worthy  the 
name  was  fought.  Diaz  was  not  driven  from 
the  presidency  and  from  the  country  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet.  But  finding  to  his  as- 


62 


Mexico  To-Day 


tonishment  that  popular  dissatisfaction  with 
his  administration  and  demand  for  his  retire- 
ment were  general,  in  considerable  annoy- 
ance, but  relieved  to  be  rid  of  the  burdens  of 
his  office — which  had  never  been  for  him  a 
sinecure — he  resigned  the  presidency,  and, 
upon  the  insistence  of  Madero,  who  was  still 
afraid  of  him,  left  the  country. 

A Successor  to  Diaz.  It  had  been  evident  to 
any  student  of  Mexico  during  the  Diaz  re- 
gime, and  to  none  more  clearly  than  to  Diaz 
himself,  who  knows  that  country  and  its  peo- 
ple better  than  any  other  living  man,  that  the 
great  problem  of  that  administration  was  the 
providing  of  a competent  successor.  The 
next  president  should  not  be  so  autocratic  as 
Diaz  had  been — it  would  not  be  necessary. 
Neither  must  he  go  too  far  in  the  other  direc- 
tion. The  moment  the  people  felt  that  the 
central  government  had  a weak  hand,  brig- 
andage and  insurrection  would  break  out 
everywhere.  It  was  especially  doubted 
whether  a civilian  would  be  equal  to  the 
situation.  On  the  other  hand,  no  soldier 
was  at  hand  who  was  able  to  work  harmoni- 
ously with  the  President.  His  old  compan- 
ions in  arms  against  the  French,  of  nearly 
fifty  years  before,  were  gone.  One  or  two 
men  of  a younger  generation  were  tested,  but 


Political  Evolution 


63 


proved  intractable.  The  most  influential 
man  in  the  cabinet  of  Diaz  was  Mr.  Liman- 
tour,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  He  was 
solicited  more  than  once  to  allow  his  name 
to  be  put  before  the  people  for  the  presi- 
dency, but  knowing  too  well  how  thorny  a 
road  it  would  be  for  a civilian,  declined. 

Madero’s  Troubles.  The  disastrous  experi- 
ence of  Mr.  Madero  supplies  melancholy 
proof  of  the  prudence  of  Mr.  Limantour. 
Not  himself  a soldier,  Madero  failed  com- 
pletely to  secure  a military  establishment 
capable  of  inspiring  respect.  The  army  of 
President  Diaz  had,  as  we  have  seen,  largely 
disintegrated.  Toward  the  end  of  his  ad- 
ministration and  when  the  final  emergency 
arose,  the  venerable  President  had  nomi- 
nally an  establishment  totaling  some  36,000 
soldiers.  Of  these  only  about  13,000  could 
be  accounted  for.  In  place  of  the  rest  there 
were  only  padded  rolls.  After  the  sudden 
overturning  of  his  government  there  was,  of 
course,  mutual  distrust  between  those  who 
had  been  his  soldiers  and  the  man  who  had 
been  most  active  in  opposing  him  and  who 
later  succeeded  him  in  office.  As  a conse- 
quence of  this  distrust  the  old  military  or- 
ganization— in  the  matter  of  its  personnel, 
at  least — practically  disappeared.  A few 


64 


Mexico  To-Day 


officers  continued  on  the  active  list,  but 
mostly  the  subordinates  of  General  Diaz 
went  out  with  him. 

Without  an  Army.  On  the  other  hand  there 
was  virtually  no  army  resulting  from  the  in- 
surgent movement  under  Madero.  A con- 
siderable collection  of  volunteers  remained, 
but  their  officers  were  mostly  without  mili- 
tary experience  or  training,  and  the  cam- 
paigns through  which  they  and  the  men  had 
passed  were  so  largely  bloodless  that  they 
had  not  greatly  helped  to  make  them  soldiers. 
And  allowing  all  that  may  be  asked  for  that 
army  as  an  army,  it  was  lost  to  Madero  by 
the  defection  of  Orozco.  Practically  all  of 
the  efficient  troops  followed  this  popular 
leader  into  insurrection  against  the  duly 
elected  head  of  the  republic.  This  large 
body  of  insurgents,  who  soon  overran  the 
northern  part  of  the  country,  gave  encour- 
agement to  the  dissatisfied  groups  in  the 
south,  especially  those  under  Zapata,  and  the 
position  of  the  Madero  government  at  once 
became  precarious.  The  fact  that  there 
were  two  large  areas  of  the  country  in  rebel- 
lion and  that  the  government  was  powerless 
to  suppress  disorder  soon  filtered  through 
even  the  remote  and  mountainous  sections 
where  men  can  always  be  found  who  would 


Political  Evolution 


65 


rather  live  by  pillage  than  by  work.  The  re- 
sult was  a widespread  outbreak  of  brigandage. 

The  Mexican  Bandit.  Highway  robbery  has 
been  a persistent  phenomenon  of  Mexican 
life  throughout  the  entire  history  of  the 
country.  There  is  doubtless  a very  small 
percentage  of  the  population  which  is  predis- 
posed to  this  manner  of  life — not  more,  per- 
haps, than  would  be  found  in  other  lands. 
But  circumstances  have  greatly  favored  the 
operations  of  these  few.  The  country  itself, 
by  reason  of  its  topography  and  its  peculiar 
products,  offers  much  encouragement.  The 
wide  dry  plains  and  the  rugged  and  almost 
equally  dry  mountain  fastnesses  are  the  de- 
spair of  officers  of  the  law,  the  more  so  as 
such  officers  are  usually  strangers  to  the 
locality,  representing  the  distant  central  gov- 
ernment. Local  police  regulations  have 
never  been  developed  in  Mexico  to  a state  of 
real  efficiency.  And  as  for  the  products  of 
the  country,  the  wealth  of  the  farming  opera- 
tions is  gathered  and  stored  in  great  hacien- 
das, where  robbers,  if  successful  in  breaking 
in,  can  usually  make  rich  hauls.  Then  there 
are  the  mines.  Many  of  these,  because  of 
their  remoteness,  have  to  refine  their  prod- 
ucts before  transporting  them  out,  and  all 
require  the  shipment  in  of  much  cash  for 


66 


Mexico  To-Day 


their  payrolls.  This  precious  metal  and 
cash  in  transport  offer  a constant  temptation 
to  the  freebooter. 

Calls  Out  Sympathy.  The  highwayman  is, 
moreover,  the  object  of  widespread  sympa- 
thy and  admiration.  He  deals  out  his  easy 
wealth  with  a lavish  hand  among  the  poor 
peasants  who  provide  him  occasional  shelter 
and  food.  He  conciliates  even  the  Church, 
till  he  is  by  it  reproved  but  gently.  All  this 
has  tended  to  a sort  of  easy  tolerance  of  the 
business  and  the  men  who  engage  in  it. 
Then  there  is  a profound  and  growing  dis- 
satisfaction with  their  hard  lot  among  the 
poor  of  Mexico.  So  when  they  see  one  of 
their  own  class  break  over  by  force  and  begin 
to  prey  on  the  rich,  who  have  long  preyed  on 
them,  they  are  apt  secretly  to  rejoice  in  it. 

Ever-present  land  Question.  To  this  criminal 
brigandage,  which  soon  became  the  pest  of 
the  Madero  government,  as  it  had  be^n  of 
many  a previous  administration,  was  added  a 
great  volume  of  genuine  discontent,  a discon- 
tent which  sent  out  many  armed  peasants  to 
stand  against  the  government  for  what  they 
conceived  to  be  their  rights.  The  well- 
founded  dissatisfaction  of  these  people  arose 
from  Mexico’s  greatest  problem,  already 
mentioned,  the  land  question.  All  the  land 


Political,  Evolution 


67 


of  that  country  is  held  by  a very  few  people 
and  nearly  all  of  it  in  very  large  bodies.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  not  over  a thousand 
families  own  all  the  land  in  the  entire  repub- 
lic. Some  of  these  holdings  are  enormous. 
They  are  measured  in  sitios,  an  old  Spanish 
unit  of  a league  square,  that  is,  nine  square 
miles.  One  man  owns  enough  of  these  sitios 
to  cover  practically  half  of  the  largest  state 
in  Mexico.  One  may  travel  for  hours  on  the 
railway  train  without  crossing  the  boundary 
of  one  of  these  huge  haciendas.  And  the 
worst  feature  of  the  situation  is  that  so  large 
a proportion  of  these  great  holdings  remains 
unimproved.  These  lands  are  also  taxed  at 
a very  low  rate,  especially  the  unimproved 
sections. 

Indian  lands.  In  recent  years  lumber  and 
mining  syndicates,  many  of  them  involving 
foreign  capital,  have  sought,  and  by  various 
means  have  obtained,  possession  of  much 
land  which  had  been  community  holdings  of 
Indian  villages.  The  Indians  have  always 
preferred  to  retain  the  system  of  village 
communes  in  existence  before  the  advent  of 
the  Spaniards,  a preference  which  the  Span- 
ish government  wisely  respected.  These 
communal  lands,  lying  mostly  in  the  moun- 
tains— for  the  white  man  long  ago  crowded 


68 


Mexico  To-Day 


his  red  brother  out  of  the  arable  plains — are 
largely  unfit  for  cultivation,  and  are  kept  for 
common  pasturage  and  a fuel  supply.  But 
their  wealth  of  timber,  and  in  some  instances 
of  minerals,  has  not  escaped  the  eye  of  the 
prospector  and  lumber  “ cruiser.”  In  many 
cases  and  in  many  places  the  poor  Indians 
have  been  cheated  and  exploited.  This  form 
of  abuse  greatly  discredited  the  later  years 
of  the  Diaz  administration.  The  venerable 
President  himself  was  doubtless  kept  in  ig- 
norance of  what  was  going  on,  but  men  con- 
nected with  his  government  trafficked  in  con- 
cessions and  bargains,  and  the  power  of  that 
government  was  employed  to  evict  and  cow 
the  helpless  villagers. 

Question  of  Subdivision.  Mr.  Madero,  in  the 
course  of  his  idealistic  discussions  of  Mex- 
ico’s situation,  often  declared  that  the  land 
belonged  to  the  people  and  that  they  ought 
to  have  it.  After  he  was  triumphantly 
elected  President,  the  people,  in  their  simple 
way,  expected  that  lands  would  immediately 
be  turned  over  to  them.  The  Indians,  espe- 
cially, counted  on  the  adjustment  of  all  their 
claims,  both  just  and  imaginary.  The  situa- 
tion was  most  unhappy  for  the  new  Presi- 
dent. In  Mexico,  as  elsewhere,  property 
rights  are  strongly  intrenched  behind  the 


Political,  Evolution 


69 


law.  The  large  land  holders  had  no  thought 
of  yielding  to  idealistic  considerations  and 
dividing  up  their  property.  The  same  thing 
was  true  of  the  mining  and  lumber  corpora- 
tions. Madero  has  been  sharply  criticized 
because  he  at  least  did  not  carry  out  his 
theories  and  divide  up  his  own  extensive 
lands.  As  a younger  member  of  a large  and 
somewhat  patriarchal  family  it  was  probably 
not  possible  for  him  to  do  this,  and  in  any 
event,  the  final  solution  of  the  difficulty  is 
not  to  be  sought  in  voluntary  philanthropy 
of  this  kind.  Mr.  Madero  probably  never 
expected  his  statements  of  abstract  consid- 
erations to  be  taken  as  promises.  It  was 
characteristic  of  the  childlike  thinking  of 
the  untutored  Indians,  however,  that  they 
should  assume  that  all  their  troubles  would 
end  as  soon  as  they  had  for  President  a man 
who  wished  to  see  them  ended.  When  noth- 
ing was  done  to  restore  their  lands,  there- 
fore, they  became  infuriated  and  broke  into 
wild  disorders.  The  farm  laborers  on  the 
great  estates  sympathized  with  them,  and 
the  agitation  against  the  Madero  govern- 
ment became  general.  The  President  soon 
lost  the  popularity  that  had  swept  him  into 
office.  In  connection  with  the  previous  revo- 
lution, as  well  as  in  consequence  of  the  long 


70 


Mexico  To-Day 


period  of  quiet  and  public  confidence,  fire- 
arms bad  come  to  be  more  generally  owned 
than  ever  before  in  Mexico.  Every  man  who 
could  get  hold  of  a rifle  set  out  to  right  his 
own  wrongs,  and  the  country  was  filled  with 
“ revolutionists.” 

The  People  Not  Military.  Yet  at  this  very 
time  it  proved  impossible  for  President  Ma- 
dero  to  organize  an  efficient  army.  The 
chief  reason  was  the  disinclination  of  the 
Mexicans  to  engage  in  military  service.  The 
President  doubled  the  wages  of  the  common 
soldier,  making  them  more  than  those  of  the 
common  laborer,  but  the  lists  did  not  fill  up. 
Such  battalions  as  he  took  over  from  the 
revolutionary  organizations  already  existing 
continually  proved  disloyal,  while,  as  a mat- 
ter of  course,  he  dared  not  avail  himself  of 
the  fragments  that  remained  of  the  old  Diaz 
army.  His  situation  was  really  tragic.  The 
night  that  the  insurrection  broke  out  in  Mex- 
ico City  (February  9,  1913),  he  traveled  in 
an  automobile,  over  a road  that  had  been  for 
some  time  almost  abandoned  because  of  high- 
waymen, seventy-five  miles  to  Cuernavaca, 
to  bring  up  personally  a small  body  of  only 
twelve  hundred  soldiers — state  militia,  most 
of  them — in  whom  he  had  confidence.  And 
after  all,  in  less  than  ten  days  from  that  time 


Political  Evolution 


71 


lie  had  been  betrayed  by  his  own  generals 
and  was  a prisoner  in  his  own  capital. 

Huerta  Administration.  At  the  time  of  this 
writing  (April,  1913)  the  government  of 
President  Huerta  is  in  serious  straits  be- 
cause of  this  same  peculiarity  of  the  Mexi- 
can. The  people  of  that  country  are  not 
warlike  in  their  tastes.  They  do  not  like 
military  sendee.  It  is  hard  to  provide  an 
army.  They  were  dissatisfied  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  Madero  because  it  did  not  have 
a strong  hand  for  robbers  and  because  their 
troubles  about  land  and  taxation  were  not 
remedied.  They  will  band  together  for  up- 
risings, as  they  are  now  doing  again,  but 
they  do  not  like  to  settle  down  to  the  busi- 
ness of  fighting.  President  Huerta  gave  the 
friends  of  Madero  an  excellent  pretext  by  his 
alleged  cruelty  in  permitting  or  ordering  the 
death  of  Madero  and  of  Suarez.  That  was 
indeed  an  inexcusable  blunder.  The  fact 
also  that  he  seized  the  government  by  a mili- 
tary coup  now  weakens  his  hold  upon  it. 
The  rebellion  against  him  led  by  Governor 
Carranza,  of  Coahuila,  ably  seconded  by 
strong  leaders  in  the  far  northwest  and  abet- 
ted by  the  intransigent  attitude  of  Zapata  in 
the  south,  has  placed  him  in  a most  precari- 
ous situation.  In  addition  to  his  difficulty  of 


72 


Mexico  To-Day 


recruiting  soldiers  at  home  is  the  even  more 
serious  one  of  borrowing  money  abroad.  His 
coffers  are  empty,  and  the  failure  of  foreign 
governments  to  recognize  him  as  legitimately 
the  head  of  the  Mexican  government  makes 
it  practically  impossible  for  him  to  secure  a 
loan  in  any  of  the  money  markets  of  the 
world.  It  seems  improbable  that  he  will  be 
able  to  hold  his  seat  much  longer. 


RELIGIONS,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


A few  of  the  Aztec  gods  blossomed  out  as  Christian  saints 
soon  after  the  Conquest  through  the  ingenious  schemes  of 
the  early  priests,  who  adopted  this  method  to  make  the 
new  religion  accepted.  They  brought  with  them  into  the 
Roman  Church  the  particular  characteristics  and  powers 
which  they  were  credited  with  as  pagan  gods.  For  ex- 
ample, the  goddess  of  the  rains,  who  was  much  worshiped 
in  the  regions  of  little  rain,  may  be  recognized  in  Our 
Lady  of  the  Mists,  of  the  Mexican  Church,  who  is  appealed 
to  for  the  much-needed  rain,  and  is  believed  to  have  the 
same  power  that  the  old  Aztec  or  Toltee  gods  were  sup- 
posed to  have.  In  many  places  there  are  shrines  erected 
to  these  saints  of  the  Church,  and  it  has  been  proven  that, 
in  most  instances,  in  Aztec  times,  temples  existed  on  the 
same  spots  dedicated  to  the  goddess  of  the  rains  or  mists. 
— Nevin  0.  Winter. 

A daily  paper  of  Mexico  City  contained  on  March  30, 
1913,  a “story”  by  one  of  its  reporters,  which  illustrates 
the  superstition  of  the  poorer  people.  Following  a throng  of 
men  and  women  who  were  saying  to  each  other,  “ Have 
you  seen  it  ? ” “ They  say  it  is  wonderful,”  etc.,  the  re- 

porter found  his  way  to  the  open  court  of  a cheap  tene- 
ment-house, which  was  packed  with  people.  They  were 
chattering  and  crowding  and  calling  to  each  other,  and 
those  inside  seemed  to  be  praying.  After  much  vigorous 
pushing  and  elbowing,  he  at  last  got  past  the  doorway 
and  into  the  court  itself.  The  eyes  of  all  were  fastened 
on  a large  eucalyptus  tree  growing  in  the  court  (a  sort  of 
gum  tree  from  Australia  which  flourishes  amazingly  in 
Mexico ) . On  the  side  of  the  tree  was  a white  spot  which 
all  declared  was  an  apparition  of  the  “Divine  Face”  (El 
Divino  Rostro),  that  is,  the  face  of  Christ  wearing  the 
crown  of  thorns,  as  usually  represented  on  crucifixes.  Many 
were  crossing  themselves  and  muttering  prayers. 

The  reporter  took  the  trouble  to  look  up  and  interview 
the  owner  of  the  house.  He  was  found  in  a state  of  con- 
siderable annoyance.  “ I was  making  some  repairs  and 
had  to  cut  off  a large  branch  of  this  tree.  Now  these 
idiotic  people  are  mobbing  the  house  because  they  fancy 
that  that  white  sear  is  a miracle.”  The  next  day  he  made 
an  end  to  the  “ miracle  ” by  tying  a cloth  around  the 
trunk  in  such  a way  as  to  conceal  the  scar.  The  people 
after  that  let  him  and  his  house  alone. 


CHAPTER  m 


RELIGIONS,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

1.  Ancient  Religions 

Early  Religious  Ideas.  Mexicans  may  be  de- 
scribed in  the  words  of  Paul  concerning  tbe 
Athenians  as  “in  all  things  very  religious.” 
In  the  confused  turmoil  of  tradition  and  his- 
tory upon  which  we  must  depend  for  our 
knowledge  of  their  life  before  the  coming  of 
the  Spanish  soldiers,  the  gods,  the  priests, 
the  temples,  and  the  worship  stand  out  more 
distinctly  than  any  other  phase  of  life.  And 
this  has  been  characteristic  of  the  people 
ever  since.  The  Mayas  had  their  peculiar 
deities,  the  Toltecs  theirs;  while  the  Chichi- 
mecs,  Aztecs,  Tarascos,  and  the  rest  were 
not  less  liberally  provided.  In  most  of  the 
tribes  there  seem  to  have  been  vague  intima- 
tions of  a spiritual  creator  and  supreme  god, 
ideas  always  overlaid  in  practise  by  the  at- 
tention paid  to  special  gods  and  goddesses. 
An  equally  vague  nature-worship,  in  which 
the  sun  and  the  fertile  earth  were  adored, 
had  its  influence  among  the  more  strictly 

75 


76 


Mexico  To-Day 


agricultural  tribes.  The  Marascos  had  a 
goddess  whom  they  worshiped  with  offerings 
of  the  produce  of  their  lands.  They  also 
looked  upon  the  clouds  as  divine,  and  placed 
offerings  to  them  in  the  warm  springs,  which 
from  their  vapors  they  believed  to  be  parents 
of  the  clouds.  Competent  authorities  iden- 
tify their  goddess  of  fertility  with  the  rain. 
Such  a conception  might  easily  arise  in  a 
country  where  the  difference  between  a fam- 
ine year  and  one  of  plenty  is  a question  of 
a little  more  or  less  of  rainfall. 

Religion  of  the  Toltecs.  The  deities  of  the 
Mayas  are  found  sculptured  among  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  cities  of  Yucatan  and  the  Isth- 
mus of  Tehuantepec.  The  Maya  occupancy 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and  adjacent  re- 
gions— if  there  was  such  an  occupancy — 
wTas  followed  by  that  of  the  Toltecs.  This 
was  the  name  later  given  to  a people  of 
uncertain  origin  from  one  of  their  cities, 
Tollan  or  Tula.  Their  huge  temple  pyra- 
mids remain  to  this  day  at  Cholula,  Teoti- 
huacan,  and  elsewhere.  The  Chichimecs 
and  Aztecs  who  came  after  them  doubt- 
less owed  much  of  their  civilization,  includ- 
ing no  little  of  their  religious  beliefs,  to  this 
earlier  people.  Quetzalcoatl,  the  “ Fair 
God,”  was  a Toltec  deity,  described  as  hav- 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  77 

ing  blue  eyes,  fair  hair,  and  a beard.  The 
Toltecs  themselves  may  have  been  blondes, 
at  least  fair  skins  and  hair  were  not  unknown 
among  them.  Individuals  with  light  hair 
and  eyes  are  still  found  among  the  Mayas. 
The  Toltecs  called  one  of  their  gods  Teocall, 
and  from  that  their  temples  were  teocallis. 
This  name,  some  believe,  was  applied  to  the 
supreme  god.  At  any  rate,  the  word  for 
temple,  teocalli,  was  still  in  use  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest. 

Temples  and  Pyramids.  Various  writers  of 
that  period  give  us  verbal  accounts  of  the 
teocalli,  especially  the  great  one  in  the  city 
of  Mexico.  There  remain  a few  rude  draw- 
ings of  it,  but  no  correct  plan  or  picture. 
The  old  pyramids  of  the  Toltecs  were  then 
already  discarded  and  overgrown  with 
plants.  Two  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  may  yet  be  seen  at  San  Juan  Teotihua- 
can,  about  an  hour  eastward  by  train  from 
Mexico  City.  Until  recently  they  had  the 
appearance  of  ordinary  hills  sparsely  cov- 
ered with  cactus  and  thorny  shrubs.  But  a 
few  years  ago  the  government  of  Mexico  had 
a good  deal  of  work  done  in  exploring  and 
restoring  them.  One  is  supposed  to  have 
been  dedicated  to  the  sun,  the  other  to  the 
moon.  Both  are  immense  piles  of  stone  and 


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Mexico  To-Day 


adobe,  and  between  and  about  them  was  an 
elaborate  system  of  walks  and  courts  and 
shrines  carefully  laid  out  and  much  of  it 
paved  with  cement,  of  which  many  traces  yet 
remain.  The  pyramid  of  the  sun  is  about 
the  same  size  at  the  base  as  Cheops,  the  great 
pyramid  of  Egypt, — two  hundred  and  thirty- 
two  by  two  hundred  and  twenty-four  meters, 
or  about  seven  hundred  and  sixty  by  seven 
hundred  and  thirty  feet.  The  pyramid  of 
the  moon  is  a little  smaller.  Both  are  astro- 
nomically adjusted.  Even  a casual  exam- 
ination of  them  will  impress  the  visitor  that 
the  people  who  built  them  set  much  store  by 
their  religion. 

Destructiveness  of  the  Conquerors.  The  indus- 
try of  the  early  Spanish  priests  and  govern- 
ors in  destroying  all  records  of  the  history 
and  religion  of  the  native  Mexicans  has  be- 
queathed to  later  students  many  difficult 
problems.  As  much  as  possible  must  be 
made  out  of  architectural  remains,  sculp- 
tures, and  the  scanty  records  which  escaped 
the  destroying  hands  of  the  zealous  priests. 
There  were  so  many  successive  migrations  of 
peoples,  each  with  religious  peculiarities  of 
its  own,  and  the  remains  of  the  homes  and 
shrines  of  these  successive  tribes  are  now  so 
heaped  one  upon,  the  other  that,  in  the  ab- 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  79 

sence  of  writing,  they  are  extremely  hard  to 
make  out.  Two  or  three  conclusions  seem  to 
be  pretty  well  established.  First,  the  teocal- 
lis,  built  of  stone  or  adobe,  were  the  lineal  de- 
scendants of  mounds  and  pyramids  and  pre- 
served the  pyramidal  form.  Secondly,  there 
was  a great  inclination  to  make  use  of  human 
sacrifices,  the  heart  of  a living  victim  being 
thought  especially  pleasing  as  an  offering  to 
the  gods.  Thirdly,  whatever  of  spiritual  il- 
lumination the  native  religion  may  have  had 
at  an  earlier  time  was  largely  lost  by  the 
time  of  the  invasion.  At  that  time  Coaberi, 
Coaxalcoatl,  Huitzilopochtli  were  the  favo- 
rite gods,  the  first  a Tarascan  deity,  the  sec- 
ond a Toltec,  the  third  an  Aztec  or  Chichimec. 
To  each  of  these  human  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered, to  all  in  practically  the  same  manner. 
But  this  kind  of  offering  was  thought  espe- 
cially pleasing  to  the  god  of  war,  Huitzilo- 
pochtli. In  connection  with  these  sacrifices 
there  was  a measure  of  cannibalism,  more 
apparently  as  a religious  rite  than  because 
the  Mexicans  cared  for  human  flesh  as  food. 
Their  worship  was  also  celebrated  with 
dances,  chants,  garlands  of  flowers,  and  occa- 
sionally heavy  drinking. 

Human  Sacrifice  an  Exception.  One  of  the 
huge  stones  on  which  human  beings  were  sac- 


80 


Mexico  To-Day 


rificed  is  still  preserved  in  the  National  Mu- 
seum of  Mexico.  The  victims  were  placed 
face  upward  on  the  stone,  their  heads  strained 
back  by  a heavy  stone  yoke  placed  around  the 
neck,  and  the  chest  laid  open  by  a sharp  flint 
or  obsidian  knife.  The  heart  was  torn  out 
warm  and  palpitating  and  offered  before  the 
bloody  and  ugly  god,  and  the  dead  body  was 
thrown  over  the  parapet  of  the  high  temple. 
In  spite  of  this  barbarous  phase  of  it,  the 
religion  of  the  Mexicans  was  not  a savage  or 
cruel  religion.  They  argued  with  the  Span- 
iards that  it  really  made  no  difference  how 
they  killed  their  enemies,  whether  on  the  field 
of  battle  or  on  the  altar  of  their  god.  This 
reasoning  is  not  very  sound,  but  the  conten- 
tion was  pertinent  as  applied  to  the  Span- 
iards, who  with  their  superior  arms  made 
vast  slaughter  of  the  poor,  half-naked  Indians. 

Crucifix  Forms  Explained.  The  figures  of  the 
cross  found  in  various  ruins  of  prehistoric 
Mexico  occasioned  for  a long  time  much 
speculation.  They  seem  to  be  due  to  two 
circumstances.  A few  of  them  are  efforts  to 
reproduce  the  favorite  symbol  of  the  Chris- 
tians; these,  of  course,  date  from  the  time 
of  the  conquest.  The  others  are  representa- 
tions of  certain  forms  of  torture  employed 
by  the  natives.  The  criminal  or  prisoner 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  81 

was  staked  or  bound  to  a frame  or  to  the 
ground,  with  the  four  limbs  extended,  and 
was  then  slowly  executed  or,  on  occasion,  al- 
lowed to  die  from  exposure. 

2.  Early  Roman  Catholicism 

Missionary  Work  of  the  Spaniards.  The  Span- 
iards after  their  arrival  gave  themselves 
with  tremendous  zeal  to  the  “ conversion  ” 
of  the  natives.  Indeed,  the  extension  of  the 
11  Christian  ” domain  was  one  of  the  pre- 
texts urged  for  the  conquest.  As  soon  as  the 
mainland  of  America  was  discovered  there 
was  a scramble  to  take  possession  of  it. 
Spain  and  Portugal  were  about  to  come  to 
blows  wlien  the  Pope  of  Rome  intervened. 
He  ordained  that  a line  should  be  drawn, 
north  and  south,  from  pole  to  pole  running 
three  hundred  and  seventy  miles  west  of  the 
Azores  islands.  The  Portuguese  were  given 
unlimited  sway  over  all  the  land  discovered 
east  of  that  line,  the  Spanish  over  all  west. 
In  the  framing  of  this  decree  it  is  needless 
to  say  that  the  people  already  living  in  the 
new  world  were  neither  consulted  nor  consid- 
ered. Observance  of  this  arbitrary  line, 
which  was  accepted  by  both  the  Christian 
kings  involved  in  the  dispute,  gave  Brazil  to 


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Mexico  To-Day 


Portugal  and  practically  all  the  rest  of 
America  to  Spain.  Of  course  nobody  knew 
then  (1494)  how  big  America  was.  The 
Pope,  Alexander  VI,  assumed  in  this  decree 
to  confirm  such  lands  as  fell  to  the  Spaniards 
to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  every  particu- 
lar and  for  all  time.  “ The  authority  was  to 
be  unlimited  and  to  cover  all  things,  temporal 
and  spiritual ; the  bodies  and  souls,  the  prop- 
erty and  services  of  the  conquered  natives 
were  to  be  their  peculiar  inheritance,  and 
that  of  their  successors  forever.”  This  re- 
markable title-deed — remarkable  especially 
in  that  the  man  who  made  it  had  himself  no 
rights  in  the  case — was  confirmed  to  the 
Spanish  monarchs  by  Alexander’s  successor, 
Julius  II.  By  that  time  the  immensity  of 
the  domain  began  to  be  appreciated.  This 
grant  of  imaginary  rights  was  taken  in  all 
seriousness  by  the  Spanish  kings,  who  ex- 
acted a strict  account  from  every  adventurer 
who  succeeded  in  overrunning  new  territory. 
In  return  they  undertook  to  reduce  all  these 
new  lands  to  subjection  to  the  Pope.  The 
example  of  Mohammedanism  and  the  fever 
of  the  Crusades  had  poisoned  the  minds  of 
Christians.  They  began  to  believe  that  the 
kingdom  of  God  could  be  extended  by  the 
sword. 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  83 

Conversion  Too  Rapid.  Priests  and  mission- 
aries followed  or  accompanied  the  armies  of 
conquest  in  the  new  world.  In  Mexico  they 
found  an  immense  field.  The  country  was 
well  populated.  In  the  centers,  about  the 
Valley  of  Mexico,  especially,  there  were  im- 
mense masses  of  people.  Without  accepting 
the  estimates  of  Cortez  and  his  followers, 
which  are,  of  course,  only  the  rough  guesses 
of  excited  men,  it  is  nevertheless  quite  safe 
to  believe  that  the  empire  of  Montezuma  em- 
braced millions  of  people,  and  that  in  and 
about  the  capital  city  there  were  hundreds  of 
thousands.  Once  these  people  had  been  van- 
quished and  overawed  in  battle,  by  those 
whom  they  probably  looked  upon  as  super- 
human, they  were  in  a mood  to  accept  about 
anything  which  the  conquerors  proposed. 
One  of  the  things  immediately  proposed  was 
baptism.  The  Catholic  doctrine  of  bap- 
tismal regeneration  was  applied  by  the 
priests  and  soldiers  of  that  period  in  its 
baldest,  most  literal  meaning.  They  seem 
really  to  have  believed  that  to  have  the  In- 
dians submit  to  baptism  was  to  convert  them. 
Hence  they  did  not  hesitate  at  rather  rough 
measures  to  get  them  to  submit.  These  were 
usually  not  necessary,  however,  for  the  Mexi- 
cans saw  nothing  objectionable  in  the  cere- 


84 


Mexico  To-Day 


mony.  Nothing  else  was  required  of  them, 
and  the  sprinkling  was  soon  over.  The 
priests  did  prodigies.  One  is  said  to  have 
baptized  in  a single  day  as  many  as  five 
thousand  “ converts,’ ’ continuing  till  he  was 
so  tired  that  he  could  not  lift  his  hands.  The 
authorities  of  the  Church  reported  that  “ in 
a few  years  after  the  reduction  of  the  Mexi- 
can empire  the  sacrament  of  baptism  was 
administered  to  more  than  four  millions.” 
On  this  a judicious  observer  comments : 
“ Proselytes  adopted  with  such  inconsid- 
erate haste,  and  who  were  neither  instructed 
in  the  nature  of  the  tenets  to  which  it  was 
supposed  they  had  given  assent,  nor  taught 
the  absurdity  of  those  which  they  were  re- 
quired to  relinquish,  retained  their  venera- 
tion for  their  ancient  superstitions  in  full 
force.” 

Superstitions  Retained.  The  testimony  of 
Baron  Humboldt,  who  visited  Mexico  three 
hundred  years  later,  proves  this : ‘ ‘ The  in- 

troduction of  the  Romish  religion  had  no 
other  effect  upon  the  Mexicans  than  to  sub- 
stitute new  ceremonies  and  symbols  for  the 
rites  of  a sanguinary  worship.  Dogma  has 
not  succeeded  dogma  but  only  ceremony  to 
ceremony.  I have  seen  them,  naked  and 
adorned  with  tinkling  bells,  perform  savage 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  85 

dances  around  the  altar  while  a monk  of  St. 
Francis  elevated  the  host.” 

A Catholic  Critic.  How  persistent  were 
these  customs  may  be  seen  further  in  the 
writings  of  Abbe  Domenech,  whose  book  was 
published  as  late  as  1867.  He  had  gone  to 
Mexico  as  chaplain  of  the  French  expedi- 
tionary forces  sent  to  support  Maximilian. 
After  the  troops  had  been  recalled,  he  was 
required  to  travel  through  Mexico  and  report 
on  its  religious  and  moral  condition.  The 
results  of  that  investigation  he  incorporated 
in  a book,  published  in  Paris  (1867),  which 
he  called  Le  Mexique  tel  Qu’el  Est,  or  Mexico 
as  It  Is.  Since  Domenech  was  himself  a 
Catholic,  his  account  of  the  Catholicism 
of  the  Mexicans  may  be  looked  upon  as 
reliable.  He  says : “ It  would  require  vol- 
umes to  relate  the  Indian  superstitions  of  an 
idolatrous  character  which  exist  to  this  day. 
For  want  of  serious  instruction  you  find  in 
the  Catholicism  of  the  Indians  numerous  re- 
mains of  the  old  Aztec  paganism.”  In  an- 
other place  he  records  these  observations : 
“ The  idolatrous  character  of  Mexican 
Catholicism  is  a fact  well  known  to  all  trav- 
elers. The  worship  of  saints  and  madonnas 
so  absorbs  the  devotion  of  the  people  that 
little  time  is  left  to  think  about  God.  Re- 


86 


Mexico  To-Day 


ligious  ceremonies  are  performed  with  a 
most  lamentable  indifference  and  want  of 
decorum.  The  Indians  go  to  hear  mass  with 
their  poultry  and  vegetables  which  they  are 
carrying  to  market.  I have  had  to  abandon 
the  Cathedral  of  Mexico,  where  I used  to  go 
every  morning,  because  I could  not  collect 
my  thoughts  there.  The  gobble  of  the  tur- 
keys, the  crowing  of  cocks,  the  barking  of 
dogs,  the  mewing  of  cats,  the  chirping  of 
birds  in  their  nests  in  the  ceiling,  and  the  flea 
bites  rendered  meditation  impossible  to  me, 
unaccustomed  to  live  in  such  a menagerie. 
. . . One  day  I was  present  at  an  Indian 
dance,  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  patron  saint 
of  the  village.  Twenty-four  boys  and  girls 
were  dancing  in  the  church,  in  the  presence 
of  the  priest.  An  Indian,  with  his  face  con- 
cealed under  a mask  of  an  imaginary  divinity 
resembling  the  devil,  with  horns  and  claws, 
was  directing  the  figures  of  the  dance,  which 
reminded  me  of  that  of  the  redskins.  I re- 
marked to  the  priest,  who,  for  all  that,  was 
an  excellent  priest,  that  it  was  very  incon- 
gruous to  permit  such  a frolic  in  a church. 

“ ‘ The  old  customs,’  he  replied,  ‘are  re- 
spectable; it  is  well  to  preserve  them,  only 
taking  care  that  they  do  not  degenerate  into 
orgies.’  ” 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  87 

An  Exchange  of  Deities.  The  Indians  had 
indeed  merely  exchanged  their  indigenous 
superstitions  for  new  and  foreign  ones. 
The  Virgin  Mary  was  promptly  identified 
with  Mother  Earth  (Nana  Curaperi),  who 
had  long  been  a favorite  deity  among  an  ag- 
ricultural people.  The  periodic  fiestas  of 
the  Church  were  celebrated  with  garlands 
and  processions  and  dances  just  as  the  Mexi- 
cans had  been  accustomed  to  observe  the  fes- 
tivals of  their  own  religion.  The  traveler 
who  chances  to  be  in  Mexico  City  now  on 
December  12,  the  day  sacred  to  the  Virgin 
of  Guadalupe,  will  see  in  the  village  of 
Guadalupe,  a suburb  of  the  city,  Indian  pil- 
grims from  the  neighboring  mountains  danc- 
ing their  quaint  rounds  and  chanting  their 
native  songs  as  in  the  days  before  the  Span- 
ish priests  and  monks  came. 

Wholesale  Christianizing.  The  priests  who 
accompanied  the  soldiers  were  rough  and 
ready  fellows,  suited  to  such  associations,  not 
averse  to  taking  up  carnal  weapons  on  occa- 
sion, and  ready  enough  to  accept  the  idea 
that  religion  could  be  advanced  by  harsh  and 
even  bloody  measures.  Once  the  Indians 
had  submitted,  the  superiority  of  Spanish 
arms  and  organization  was  such  that  upris- 
ings were  not  common.  The  Mexicans  even 


88 


Mexico  To-Day 


then  were  of  a somewhat  docile  and  submis- 
sive temper.  Hence  in  a very  few  years 
things  took  on  a settled  and  orderly  look.  A 
distinguished  ecclesiastic  who  annotated  the 
reports  of  Cortez  to  the  Spanish  throne 
leaves  this  memorandum  in  regard  to  one  of 
them:  “ The  conquest  took  place  in  1521, 
and  three  years  after  Cortez,  in  this  dis- 
patch, speaks  as  if  fifty  years  of  wise  gov- 
ernment had  elapsed.  I shall  ever  reverence 
Cortez,  and  respect  his  name  as  that  of  a 
civil,  military,  and  religious  hero,  unexam- 
pled in  his  career;  a subject  who  bore  the 
freaks  of  fortune  with  fortitude  and  con- 
stancy, and  a man  destined  by  God  to  add  to 
the  possessions  of  the  Catholic  king  a new 
and  larger  world.” 

later  Religious  Work.  The  opportunities 
for  religious  work  under  these  more  settled 
conditions  attracted  a better  class  of  mis- 
sionaries. Men  of  really  devout  spirit,  some 
of  them  of  scholarly  tastes,  others  philan- 
thropic and  constructive  statesmen  who 
stood  up  for  the  Indians  against  their  po- 
litical and  industrial  oppressors,  still  others 
destined  to  be  the  founders  of  great  monas- 
tic establishments,  came  from  old  Spain 
to  New  Spain  to  give  their  lives  to  mis- 
sionary endeavor.  Had  it  not  been  for 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  89 

the  ineradicable  defects  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic presentation  of  the  gospel,  a better 
record  would  doubtless  have  been  left  by 
some  of  these  good  men.  As  it  was,  the  re- 
ligious handling  of  the  Indians  continued  to 
be  closely  bound  up  with  the  political  treat- 
ment which  they  received,  and  together  these 
produced  social  conditions  which  for  three 
hundred  years  but  made  the  poor  poorer  and 
the  rich  richer. 

Growth  of  the  Orders.  One  of  the  defects  of 
Catholicism  which  early  wrought  evil  in  the 
new  world  was  its  monastic  system.  The 
great  religious  orders  were  prompt  to  get  a 
foothold  there.  Those  were  their  palmy 
days.  Monks  and  nuns  came  over  in 
swarms.  They  obtained  grants  from  the 
government  of  lands  and  endowments.  They 
exacted  of  the  poor  Mexicans  a heavy  tribute 
of  unpaid  labor  with  which  they  built  im- 
mense establishments  in  the  choicest  neigh- 
borhoods of  city  and  country.  As  early  as 
16441  the  city  council  of  Mexico  City  for- 
warded to  Philip  IV  of  Spain  a formal  peti- 
tion to  allow  the  establishment  of  no  more 
convents  and  monasteries  in  New  Spain. 
The  document  declares  that  there  were  al- 
ready so  many  monks  and  nuns  there  that 

‘Perez  Verdia,  Historia  de  Mexico,  218. 


90 


Mexico  To-Day 


they  were  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  total 
population;  besides  which,  there  seemed  to 
be  great  danger  that  they  would  get  posses- 
sion of  all  the  property  in  the  country,  of 
which  they  already  owned  half.  It  goes  on 
to  request  a special  order  to  the  bishops  that 
they  should  ordain  no  more  priests,  since 
there  were  already  more  than  six  thousand 
who  were  absolutely  without  occupation ; and 
that  steps  should  be  taken  to  diminish  the 
number  of  holidays,  of  which  there  were  two 
or  three  each  week,  a state  of  affairs  tending 
greatly  to  the  increase  of  laziness.  This 
naive  petition  unhappily  received  no  notice 
on  the  part  of  the  court  of  Spain,  a neglect 
which  was  afterwards  bitterly  atoned  for  by 
all  concerned.  The  activity  of  these  re- 
ligious orders  resulted  finally  in  a total  of 
one  hundred  and  seventy-nine  monasteries 
and  eighty-five  nunneries.  The  Francis- 
cans led,  with  fifty-two  out  of  the  one 
hundred  and  seventy-nine;  the  Dominicans 
had  thirty,  and  the  Augustinians  twenty- 
six. 

Gradual  Demoralization  of  Monasticism.  The 
wealth  that  Mexico  during  those  centuries  of 
vassalage  poured  into  the  coffers  of  Spain 
was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  corroding  influ- 
ences that  brought  Spain  low.  So  in  Mexico 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  91 

itself,  the  privileged  ones  did  not  always 
really  profit  by  their  advantages.  The  relig- 
ious orders  which  at  the  beginning  had  been 
actively  missionary  and  benevolent  yielded 
later  to  the  seductions  of  “ easy  money,” 
and  as  time  went  by  grew  sluggish  and  self- 
ish and  corrupt.  The  individual’s  vow  of 
poverty  was  a light  yoke  when  each  could 
partake  of  the  wealth  of  the  community. 
Other  vows  which  monks  and  nuns  took  upon 
them  were  equally  ineffective  in  molding 
their  conduct.  Shut  up  in  their  great  and 
luxurious  establishments  they  became  con- 
firmed parasites  upon  society.  So  tena- 
ciously did  they  hold  on  to  their  property 
that  two  hundred  years  after  the  protest  of 
the  Mexico  City  council,  when  at  last  Gomez 
Farias,  Miguel  Lerdo,  Benito  Juarez,  and 
other  patriots  were  beginning  to  agitate  the 
idea  of  drawing  on  the  Church  to  help  the 
struggling  republic,  it  was  estimated  that  at 
least  a third  of  the  entire  wealth  of  Mex- 
ico was  in  ecclesiastical  hands.  Much  the 
greater  part  was  property  of  the  religious 
orders.  So  obnoxious  had  these  orders  then 
become  that  when  at  last  the  knot  was  cut 
and  the  property  sequestered,  the  orders 
themselves  were  banished.  That  law,  not 
quite  rigidly  enforced  in  later  years,  is  still 


92 


Mexico  To-Day 


on  the  statute  books  of  the  country.  It  al- 
lows no  three  persons  under  religious  vows 
to  live  together  in  the  same  house,  nor  can 
any  distinctive  religious  garb  be  worn  in  the 
street.  All  worship  must  be  within  doors, 
no- processions  or  open  air  exercises  being 
allowed.  What  the  development  of  religious 
orders  had  been  to  warrant  measures  so 
drastic  may  be  guessed  from  the  reaction  as 
voiced  in  the  laws  themselves.  All  over 
Mexico  may  still  be  found  fragments  of  the 
vast,  rambling  convents  and  monasteries. 
Huge  walls . of  amazing  thickness  and  ex- 
pensiveness have  been  cut  through  by  the 
streets  of  modern  cities.  Light  has  been  let 
in  on  many  a dark  secret — on  hidden  pas- 
sageways, on  skeletons  imbedded  in  the 
walls,  on  cisterns  full  of  bones,  on  a thousand 
mute  witnesses  to  this  long  era  of  luxury, 
sloth,  and  vice. 

Developments  in  Catholicism.  Along  with  the 
development  of  the  religious  societies  pro- 
ceeded that  of  the  parishes  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  “ secular  ” clergy.  The  people, 
true  to  their  religious  inclination,  made 
seemingly  devout  Catholics.  They  attended 
mass  industriously,  accepted  the  doctrines  of 
purgatory,  hell,  absolution,  indulgences, 
miraculous  saints,  and  the  rest,  literally  and 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  93 

unquestioningly.  Not  naturally  of  an  ag- 
gressive turn  of  mind  they  did  not  miss  the 
intellectual  training  which  was  denied  them, 
and  cheerfully  resigned  themselves  to  that 
state  of  ignorance  which  seems  in  every  land 
where  the  system  is  dominant  to  be  the 
logical  status  of  Roman  Catholic  peoples. 

Church  Leaders  and  the  Government.  The 
leaders  of  the  great  monastic  orders  and  the 
bishops  and  archbishops  of  the  regular 
clergy  were  in  frequent  collision  with  one  an- 
other. The  chapels  of  the  monks  at  times  en- 
tered into  sharp  competition  with  the  parish 
churches.  Also  the  Catholic  leaders,  secular 
and  monastic,  often  made  things  interesting 
for  the  Spanish  government.  Few  viceroys 
escaped  conflicts  with  them  more  or  less  vex- 
atious. Not  seldom  these  disputes  arose 
from  the  protests  made  by  the  priests  against 
mistreatment  of  the  Indians.  They  had 
their  own  ways  of  exploiting  the  natives,  but 
they  did  not  always  remain  silent  when  oth- 
ers oppressed  them.  One  priest  of  an  early 
period,  Las  Casas,  came  to  be  called  “ the 
protector  of  the  Indians,”  and  a portrait  of 
him  in  this  character  by  a famous  Mexican 
painter  is  in  the  Fine  Arts  Academy,  Mexico 
City. 


94 


Mexico  To-Day 


3.  Modern  Roman  Catholicism 

Tendencies  in  Catholicism.  Such  were  the 
leading-  elements  that  made  the  Catholicism 
of  Mexico  what  it  is  to-day;  namely,  the 
hasty  and  imperfect  “ conversion  ” of  a doc- 
ile but  idolatrous  people  and  the  sluggish 
and  inefficient  attitude  which  gradually  fas- 
tened itself  upon  the  Church  leaders.  The 
student  of  the  religious  history  of  that  coun- 
try cannot  fail  to  feel  astonishment  that 
conditions  which  began  to  be  in  the  sixteenth 
century  projected  themselves,  with  only 
infinitesimal  changes,  far  into  the  nine- 
teenth. And  the  state  of  affairs  described 
by  Baron  Von  Humboldt  a hundred  years 
ago  and  by  Hon.  Waddy  Thompson1  and 
Madame  Calderon  de  la  Barca2  two  or  three 
decades  later  has  in  many  essential  features 
persisted  even  to  the  present.  The  Catholi- 
cism of  Mexico  is  much  the  same  as  the 
Catholicism  of  Spain,  of  Portugal,  and  of 
Italy.  In  all  those  countries,  as  well  as  in 
South  America,  the  West  Indies,  the  Philip- 
pines, and  other  countries,  that  Church  has 
had  a similar  development  and  for  the  same 
reason : it  has  been  (at  least  till  very  recently) 
uninfluenced  by  Protestant  public  sentiment. 

1 Recollections  of  Mexico  (1840).  2 Life  in  Mexico  (1842). 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  95 

One  result  of  this  has  been  a close  alliance 
between  the  Church  and  the  government. 
This  has  had  many  important  effects  on  both. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  perforce  in- 
tolerant. Theoretically  it  does  not  admit  re- 
ligious liberty,  and  agrees  to  toleration  only 
when  it  must.  Wherever  it  has  had  alliance 
with  the  civil  power  its  first  demand  has  been 
that  no  other  form  of  worship  shall  be  al- 
lowed. This  is  the  secret  of  the  fact  that 
until  recently  there  were  no  Protestant 
churches  in  the  countries  above  mentioned. 
As  a rule,  where  republican  governments 
have  been  set  up,  one  of  the  principles  put 
forth  by  them  has  been  liberty  of  conscience 
and  of  worship.  But  even  in  spite  of  this 
the  power  of  custom  and  the  persistence  of 
the  Catholic  party  have  often  availed  to  pre- 
vent the  introduction  of  missions. 

Not  Everywhere  the  Same.  It  is  well  to  re- 
member that  there  is  a deep  and  wide  differ- 
ence between  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as 
it  is  known  in  the  United  States  and  England 
and  the  same  Church  in  the  countries  men- 
tioned above.  Theoretically  that  Church  is 
everywhere  the  same,  but  the  facts  do  not 
bear  out  the  theory.  And,  without  meaning 
to  give  offense,  one  may  note  that  there  are 
tendencies  inherent  in  certain  doctrines  of 


96 


Mexico  To-Day 


Catholicism  which  if  unchecked  by  “ pro- 
test ” from  without  will  surely  lead  to  the 
deplorable  conditions  now  to  be  found  in 
strictly  Catholic  countries.  Take,  for  exam- 
ple, the  authority  conferred  on  the  priests. 
The  results  of  it  are  bad  for  both  the  priest 
and  the  people.  As  affecting  the  Christian 
it  tends  to  relieve  him  of  that  sense  of  indi- 
vidual responsibility  which  is  the  motive  of 
all  character.  If  another  is  able  to  care  for 
our  spiritual  welfare  here  and  to  furnish  us 
safe  conduct  hereafter,  why  should  we  vex 
ourselves  about  the  matter?  So  people  rea- 
son. Instead  of  being  guided  by  their  own 
conscience  and  judgment  they  only  seek  to 
obey  the  priest.  That  is  a state  of  affairs 
which  means  sooner  or  later  the  divorce  of 
morality  from  religion. 

Demoralization  of  the  Priests.  On  the  other 
hand  the  outcome  of  this  doctrine  is  quite  as 
bad  for  the  priest.  The  sense  of  his  author- 
ity and  power  subtly  diffuses  itself  through 
all  his  inner  life.  It  is  dangerous  for  him. 

He  will  presently  be  wishing  to  direct  not 
only  the  religious  life  of  his  people  but  all 
their  affairs.  He  ceases  to  reason  with  them 
because  it  is  easier  to  command.  He  no 
longer  teaches;  ultimately  he  stops  preach- 
ing. Preaching  is  almost  a lost  art  in  the  t \ 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  97 

Catholic  Church  of  Mexico.  A sermon  is  ad- 
vertised on  special  occasions  as  a matter  of 
wide  public  interest.  Holy  Week  is  distin- 
guished from  other  seasons  in  that  a sermon 
may  be  expected  at  least  on  Good  Friday  and 
on  Easter  Sunday.  Some  years  ago  in  one  of 
the  mountain  villages  of  the  State  of  Michoa- 
ean  word  was  brought  to  the  young  man  in 
charge  of  a Protestant  mission  church  that 
the  parishioners  of  the  Catholic  Church 
wished  him  to  come  over  and  preach  for 
them.  They  had  had  a disagreement  with 
their  priest — not  an  unusual  matter  among 
those  hardy  Indians — and  he  would  not 
preach,  and  they  thought  it  too  bad  that 
Holy  Week  should  pass  without  a sermon. 
Of  course,  it  need  not  be  added  that  Sunday- 
schools  and  other  forms  of  Christian  teach- 
ing are  not  known  where  even  the  sermon  is 
almost  extinct.  The  sermons  that  are 
preached  on  the  rare  occasions  when  there 
is  preaching,  are  usually  nothing  more  than 
brief  lectures  on  the  dangers  of  “ heresy,” 
and  like  subjects,  sometimes  becoming  ti- 
rades in  condemnation  of  the  Bible  and  of 
Protestants. 

Their  Contented  Ignorance.  Unhappy  results 
also  in  the  character  and  conduct  of  the 
priests  might  naturally  be  anticipated  from 


98 


Mexico  To-Day 


this  power  and  authority  vested  in  them.  And 
here,  as  in  the  character  and  development  of 
the  people,  the  facts  bear  out  the  forecast. 
Deprived  of  the  incentive  of  teaching  others, 
the  priests  cease  to  study.  Within  a genera- 
tion or  two  learning  virtually  disappears. 
The  ignorance  of  Mexican  priests  is  aston- 
ishing. One  of  the  native  ministers  of  a 
Protestant  Church  there  told  me  that  he  had 
long  made  a business  of  seeking  interviews 
with  the  priests  where  his  work  had  taken 
him,  hoping  to  be  of  service  to  them  as  well 
as  to  others,  and  that  he  had  never  found  one 
who  had  a Bible  in  Spanish  or  that  even  knew 
how  to  find  his  way  about  in  the  Bible  when 
looking  up  texts,  many  not  even  knowing  in 
which  Testament  to  find  a certain  book. 
Such  poverty  of  mental  and  spiritual  equip- 
ment easily  leads  to  slothfulness  and  the  in- 
dulgence of  low  appetites.  Habits  that  are 
not  elevating  have  written  on  the  faces  of 
many  of  the  padres  of  Mexico  only  too  plain 
a record  that  all  who  meet  them  may  read. 

Effects  of  Ecclesiastical  Autocracy.  This  doc- 
trine of  the  authority  of  the  Church  has  af- 
fected the  religious  and  intellectual  life  of 
the  people  of  Mexico  in  many  ways,  though 
some  of  them  are  slightly  less  direct  than 
those  already  mentioned.  To  be  sure,  had 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 


CATHEDKAL,  MEXICO  CITY 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  99 

the  doctrine  been  spiritually  interpreted,  and 
had  it  been  restrained  by  an  alert  public  sen- 
timent from  leaving  the  spiritual  realm,  no 
great  harm  might  have  come.  It  is  not 
wholly  an  erroneous  doctrine.  But  this  was 
not  done,  and  those  effects  of  it  already 
traced  are  but  part  of  the  story  as  it  affects 
Mexico.  The  uninstructed  condition  of  the 
people,  for  example,  and  the  assumption  that 
they  are  Christians  if  they  receive  and  prac- 
tise the  Christian  rites,  have  brought  in  their 
train  a long  list  of  consequences.  Supersti- 
tion is  always  ready  to  lay  hold  of  our  hu- 
manity wherever  the  religious  instincts  of 
men  are  not  otherwise  satisfied;  and  super- 
stition finds  its  opportunity  in  ignorance. 
The  worship  of  saints,  which  is  but  another 
i name  for  the  worship  of  images,  has  fastened 
itself  firmly  upon  the  Mexican  Catholics.  In 
almost  any  village  church  may  be  found  pic- 
tures of  miraculous  events  that  are  connected 
with  the  name  of  a local  saint.  Some  shrines 
are  famous  throughout  a wide  region.  The 
patron  saint  of  the  Indians,  the  Virgin  of 
Guadalupe,  is  the  most  noted  of  all,  being 
looked  upon  as  an  indigena,  a native  Mexi- 
can. Her  image  is  everywhere  and  is 
thought  to  be  unusually  “ miraculous.”  The 
hill  below  the  little  chapel  where  the  original 


100 


Mexico  To-Day 


picture,  painted  on  an  Indian’s  coarse  blan- 
ket, long  rested  is  covered  with  reminders  of 
how  sailors,  travelers,  soldiers,  workmen, 
women  have  been  helped  when  they  called 
out  of  their  troubles  on  “ the  Holy  Mother 
of  Guadalupe.”  A large  stucco  sail  perched 
on  the  side  of  the  hill  proclaims  afar  the 
gratitude  of  some  who  long  ago  were  rescued 
by  her  from  shipwreck.  Crutches,  bandages, 
canes,  and  the  like,  accompanied  by  thou- 
sands of  crude  paintings  of  rescues  and  heal- 
ing, bear  their  mute  testimony  to  the  faith  of 
Mexico  in  this  her  favorite  saint. 

Saints  and  Images.  The  thought  of  the 
common  people  is  so  crude  that  always 
“ saint  ” is  the  equivalent  of  picture  or 
image.  A special  image  in  some  shrine  or 
chapel  begins  to  get  a reputation  as  “ mi- 
raculous,” and  forthwith  pictures  of  this 
saint  commence  to  circulate,  to  be  in  their 
turn  objects  of  prayer  and  veneration.  A 
saint  of  this  kind  may  prove  to  be  quite  a 
source  of  income.  The  petitioners  who  are 
especially  in  earnest,  or  those  who  come  in 
gratitude  for  favors  received,  usually  bring 
offerings.  Occasionally  one  of  these  “ mi- 
raculous ” saints  is  discovered  in  a private 
house  or  in  an  obscure  chapel  not  connected 
Yyith  the  parish  church.  Unless  it  can  be  se- 


Keligions,  Ancient  and  Modern  101 

cured  for  the  church,  it  is  apt  soon  to  incur 
opposition  from  the  priest,  who  does  not  rel- 
ish seeing  others  profit  by  an  income  that 
ought  to  belong  to  him.  Shrewd  promoters 
have  been  known  to  make  the  reputation  of  a 
saint  by  causing  it  to  “ grow  ” or  to 
“ sweat  ” or  even  to  “ bleed.”  Any  of 
these  effects  is  looked  upon  as  direct  proof 
of  special  powers. 

Saints  and  Their  Days.  In  the  homes  of  the 
people  the  pictures  and  images  of  the  saints, 
especially  of  those  having  local  fame  or  for 
some  reason  particularly  honored  in  the 
family,  are  kept  and  reverently  venerated. 
Litanies  recited  before  these  saints  are  in 
many  homes  a sort  of  substitute  for  family 
worship.  The  calendar  of  the  Catholic 
saints  is  a very  long  one,  supplying  a saint 
for  every  day  in  the  year,  with  a considerable 
surplus.  No  matter,  therefore,  when  a baby 
arrives,  he  has  always  a patron  saint,  usually 
the  one  on  whose  day  he  is  born.  Unless 
there  is  some  good  reason  to  the  contrary  he 
receives  the  name  of  that  saint.  The  Mexi- 
cans consider  a given  name  that  cannot  be 
identified  with  some  saint  quite  shocking, 
calling  it  an  “ animal  name.”  The  day  of 
any  saint  of  special  importance  is  usually 
honored  as  a holiday,  and  each  individual 


102 


Mexico  To-Day 


must  by  all  means  honor  his  own  particular 
patron  by  keeping  holiday  on  his  birthday  or 
on  the  day  of  the  saint  for  whom  he  is  named. 
Till  recently  there  were  so  many  of  these 
holidays  that  their  observance  affected  seri- 
ously the  productiveness  of  industrial  work- 
ers. The  modern  revival  of  industrialism 
with  the  urgent  pressure  of  the  “ steam 
age  ” has  tended  to  cure  this  evil.  But  even 
yet  it  is  often  most  exasperating  to  the  em- 
ployer of  labor  to  find  his  men  leaving  off 
work  at  most  inconvenient  times  on  the  plea 
that  they  must  observe  a saint’s  day. 

The  Household  Saint.  A certain  uncon- 
sciously humorous  familiarity  is  at  times  dis- 
played by  the  people  of  remote  neighbor- 
hoods in  their  dealings  with  their  household 
saints.  Earnest  prayers  are  made  to  these 
images  in  any  domestic  crisis,  and  if  all  goes 
well,  the  saint  gets  the  credit.  But  if  evil 
is  not  warded  off,  if  sickness  is  persistent  or 
fatal,  if  the  donkeys  are  not  recovered  when 
stolen,  or  the  cattle  contract  disease,  then  the 
saint  must  submit  to  righteous  condemna- 
tion. He  may  have  his  face  turned  to  the 
wall  or  be  hanged  head  downward,  or  even 
be  shut  up  in  a closet  or  banished  to  the  attic. 
He  runs  the  risk  of  forfeiting  entirely  the 
faith  of  those  who  have  long  trusted  him. 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  103 


How  desolating  to  the  spiritual  life  all  this 
is  need  scarcely  be  pointed  out. 

A “ Beautiful  Christ.”  Besides  copying  and 
circulating  the  pictures  of  famous  images, 


manifestations  or  apparitions.  If  a maguey 
leaf  happens  to  be  curiously  discolored,  in 
outlines  resembling  a human  face,  it  will 
probably  be  hailed  as  a miracle.  I was 
walking  one  day  among  the  barren  hills  near 
San  Luis  Potosi  when  I fell  in  with  an  amia- 
ble and  talkative  countryman.  He  an- 
swered many  questions  about  the  country, 
its  products,  its  plants  and  birds  and  game 
and  minerals.  Presently  as  we  came  to  the 
top  of  a ridge  sown  with  cactus  and  stones 
and  marked  with  an  occasional  scragged 
mesquit,  my  companion  said  with  much  ani- 
mation, “ A beautiful  Christ  once  appeared 
near  here.”  I began  to  inquire  about  the 
details  of  the  apparition,  how  it  was,  who 
had  seen  the  vision,  and  similar  questions. 
In  reply  he  said,  “ Come,  I will  show  you 
the  stump.”  Then  I gathered  that  a mes- 
quitatree  (a  kind  of  acacia,  closely  related 
to  ebony  and  common  in  the  arid  lands  of 
Mexico)  had  grown  with  two  branches  ex- 
tended like  the  arms  of  a cross  and  on  the 
trunk  between  some  formation  that  in  fancy 


believe  implicitly  in  material 


104 


Mexico  To-Day 


might  be  supposed  to  resemble  the  body  and 
face  of  a man.  The  tree  was  accepted  as  a 
miracle,  cut  down,  and  placed  in  the  village 
church  to  be  honored  along  with  the  other 
Christs  on  exhibition  there.  I saw  the 
stump. 

A Puzzling  Question.  “ Tell  me,”  I said  to 
my  new  friend,  “ how  it  is  you  have  in 
Mexico  so  many  Christs.  In  my  country  we 
have  heard  of  One,  who  is  the  Son  of  God. 
Once  he  came  and  was  a man.  He  went 
away  into  heaven  and  we  believe  lives  there 
now.  But  he  is  only  one.  Here  you  have 
many — Christs  here,  Christs  there,  Christs 
everywhere.”  The  man  looked  puzzled  and 
troubled.  He  was  not  used  to  thinking.  At 
last  in  that  resigned  tone  so  natural  to  his 
people  he  said:  “ I do  not  know,  sir,  how  it 

is.  Perhaps  it  is  as  you  say.”  Then  he 
brightened  up  again  and  said,  “ But  that 
was  a beautiful  Christ  which  appeared  here. 
If  you  come  sometime  to  our  village  church 
I will  show  it  to  you.” 

Is  Mexico  Christian?  This  story  illustrates 
another  defect  of  the  Christianity  of  Mexico. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  some  people  ob- 
ject to  Protestant  missions  in  Mexico  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  already  a Christian  coun- 
try. But  the  added  defect  is  a grossly  in- 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  105 

adequate  conception  of  Christ.  For  the 
Mexican  the  Savior  of  men  is  only  one  of  a 
numerous  calendar  of  saints.  He  is  no 
more  important  than  others,  and  often  not 
so  well  known  as  St.  Peter  or  St.  James. 
Indeed,  when  some  pretense  at  theological 
statement  is  made  he  is  usually  represented 
as  a stern  and  angry  Judge,  who  must  be  ap- 
proached through  another  and  can  most 
surely  be  conciliated  by  the  intercession  of 
his  own  mother. 

Rivalry  Between  Virgins.  The  development 
of  Mariolatry  has  been  more  pronounced  in 
Mexico  than  in  perhaps  any  other  Roman 
Catholic  country.  One  of  the  favorite 
saints  of  the  Spanish  invaders  during  and 
immediately  following  the  Conquest  was  an 
image  of  Mary  called  Nuestra  Senora  de  los 
Remedios.  This  particular  image  was 
borne  as  their  talisman  during  the  struggles 
of  Cortez  and  his  followers  to  enter  the 
capital  of  the  Aztec  kingdom.  Madame  de 
la  Barca  tells  in  her  usual  sr» rightly  manner 
the  story  of  this  Virgin: 

The  Spanish  Virgin.  “ We  went  lately  to 
pay  a visit  to  the  celebrated  ‘ Virgin  de  los 
Remedios,’  the  Spanish  patroness  and  rival 
of  ‘ Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe.’  This  Virgin 
was  brought  over  from  Spain  by  the  army  of 


106 


Mexico  To-Day 


Cortez,  and  on  the  night  of  the  Noclie  Triste 
the  image  disappeared,  and  nothing  further 
was  known  of  it,  until,  on  the  top  of  a barren 
mountain,  in  the  heart  of  a large  maguey,  it 
was  found.  Her  restoration  was  joyfully 
hailed  by  the  Spaniards.  A church  was 
erected  on  the  spot.  A priest  was  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  miraculous  image. 
Her  fame  spread  abroad.  Gifts  of  immense 
value  were  brought  to  her  shrine.  A treas- 
urer was  appointed  to  take  care  of  her  jew- 
els, a camarista  (a  keeper  of  robes)  to  super- 
intend her  wardrobe.  No  wealthy  dowager 
died  in  peace  until  she  had  bequeathed  to 
Our  Lady  of  Remedies  her  largest  diamond 
or  her  richest  pearl.  In  seasons  of  drought 
she  is  brought  in  from  her  dwelling  in  the 
mountain  and  carried  in  procession  through 
the  streets.  The  viceroy  himself  on  foot 
used  to  lead  the  holy  train.  One  of  the 
highest  rank  drives  the  chariot  in  which  she 
is  seated.  In  succession  she  visits  the  prin- 
cipal convents,  and  as  she  is  carried  through 
the  cloistered  precincts  the  nuns  are  ranged 
on  their  knees  in  humble  adoration.  Plenti- 
ful rains,  it  is  said,  immediately  follow  her 
arrival,  or  pestilences  are  terminated.  . . . 
It  is  true  that  there  came  a time  when  the 
famous  curate  Hidalgo,  the  prime  mover  in 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  107 

the  revolution,  having  taken  as  his  standard 
an  image  of  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe,  an  in- 
creased rivalry  arose  between  her  and  the 
Spanish  Virgin;  and  Hidalgo  being  defeated 
and  forced  to  fly,  the  image  of  the  Virgin  de 
los  Remedios  was  conducted  to  Mexico 
dressed  as  a general  and  invoked  as  the 
patroness  of  Spain.  . . . 

Shrine  of  “ Our  lady  of  Remedies.”  ‘ ‘ The 
church  where  she  is  enshrined  is  handsome, 
and  above  the  altar  is  a copy  of  the  original 
Virgin.  After  we  had  remained  there  a lit- 
tle while  we  were  admitted  into  the  sanctum, 
where  the  identical  Virgin  of  Cortez,  with  a 
large  silver  maguey,  occupies  her  splendid 
shrine.  The  priest  retired  and  put  on  his 
robes,  and  then  returning,  and  all  kneeling 
before  the  altar,  he  recited  the  Credo.  This 
over,  he  mounted  the  steps,  and,  opening  the 
shrine  where  the  Virgin  was  incased,  knelt 
down  and  removed  her  in  his  arms.  He 
then  presented  her  to  each  one  of  us  in  suc- 
cession, every  one  kissing  the  hem  of  her 
satin  robe.  She  was  afterward  replaced 
with  the  same  ceremony. 

Ugly  Appearing  Image.  “ The  image  is  a 
wooden  doll  about  a foot  high,  holding  in  its 
arms  an  infant  Jesus,  both  faces  evidently 
carved  with  a rude  penknife,  two  holes  for 


108 


Mexico  To-Day 


the  eyes  and  another  for  the  mouth.  The 
doll  was  dressed  in  blue  satin  and  pearls, 
with  a crown  upon  her  head,  and  a quantity 
of  hair  fastened  into  the  crown.  No  Indian 
idol  could  be  much  uglier.  As  she  has  been 
a good  deal  scratched  and  destroyed  in  the 
lapse  of  ages,  C — n observed  that  he  was  as- 
tonished that  they  had  not  tried  to  restore 
her  a little.  To  this  the  padre  replied  that 
the  attempt  had  been  made  by  several  art- 
ists, each  one  of  whom  had  sickened  and 
died.” 

The  Indian  Virgin.  The  rival  to  the  Spanish 
Virgin  is  the  Indian  Virgin  of  Guadalupe. 
The  story  of  this  image,  painted  on  the 
coarse  cloth  of  a shepherd’s  blanket,  was 
told  to  Madame  de  la  Barca  by  the  bishop  in 
charge  of  the  cathedral  of  the  little  town  of 
Guadalupe  as  follows : 

Story  of  the  Apparition.  ‘ ‘ In  1531,  ten  years 
and  four  months  after  the  conquest  of  Mex- 
ico, a fortunate  Indian,  whose  name  was 
Juan  Diego,  passing  by  the  mountain  of 
Tepeyac,  a short  distance  north  of  Mexico 
City,  the  holy  Virgin  suddenly  appeared  be- 
fore him  and  ordered  him  to  go  in  her  name 
to  the  bishop,  the  Ylustrisimo  D.  Fr.  Juan 
de  Zumarraga,  and  to  make  known  to  him 
that  she  desired  to  have  a place  of  worship 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  109 

erected  in  her  honor  on  that  spot.  The  next 
day  the  Indian  passed  by  the  same  place, 
when  again  the  holy  Virgin  appeared  before 
him  and  demanded  the  result  of  his  commis- 
sion. Juan  Diego  replied  that  in  spite  of 
his  endeavor  he  had  not  been  able  to  obtain 
an  audience  with  the  bishop.  ‘ Return,’  said 
the  Virgin,  ‘ and  say  that  it  is  I,  the  Virgin 
Mary,  mother  of  God,  who  sends  thee.’ 
Juan  Diego  obeyed  the  divine  orders,  yet 
still  the  bishop  would  not  give  him  credence, 
merely  desiring  him  to  bring  some  sign  or 
token  of  the  Virgin’s  will.  He  returned 
with  this  message  on  the  12th  of  December, 
when,  for  the  third  time,  he  beheld  the  ap- 
parition of  the  Virgin.  She  now  com- 
manded him  to  climb  to  the  top  of  the  barren 
rock  of  Tepeyac,  to  gather  the  roses  which 
he  should  find  there,  and  to  bring  them  to 
her.  The  humble  messenger  obeyed,  though 
well  knowing  that  on  that  spot  were  neither 
flowers  nor  any  trace  of  vegetation.  Never- 
theless, he  found  the  roses,  which  he  gath- 
ered and  brought  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  who, 
throwing  them  into  his  tilma  (blanket),  said, 
‘ Return,  show  these  to  the  bishop,  and  tell 
him  that  these  are  the  credentials  of  thy 
mission.’  Juan  Diego  set  out  for  the  epis- 
copal residence,  and  when  he  found  himself 


110 


Mexico  To-Day 


in  the  presence  of  the  prelate  he  unfolded 
his  tilma  to  show  him  the  roses,  when  there 
appeared  imprinted  on  it  the  miraculous  im- 
age which  has  existed  for  more  than  three 
centuries.” 

Virgin  of  Guadalupe.  Such  is  the  account 
which  all  devout  Catholics  are  expected  to 
believe.  As  this  Virgin  is  thought  of  and 
spoken  of  as  a native,  an  “ Indita,”  she  is 
very  popular  in  Mexico.  The  figure  as 
painted  has  been  traced  to  an  obscure  church 
in  Spain,  though  just  how  it  was  brought 
over  to  Mexico  is  not  known.  The  whole 
fable  was  a step  taken  to  secure  the  alle- 
giance of  the  natives.  The  adoption  of  the 
image  as  patron  of  the  Mexicans  in  their 
war  for  independence  has  already  been 
noted. 

Unchanging  Rome.  The  awakening  influ- 
ences of  the  nineteenth  century  have 
wrought  a few  profound  changes  in  the  re- 
ligious situation  in  Mexico.  Some  account 
of  these  will  be  given  later.  But  in  a gen- 
eral way,  the  Catholicism  which  has  just 
been  described  furnished  the  religious  set- 
ting faced  by  the  first  evangelical  mission- 
aries when  they  entered  Mexico  during  the 
latter  half  of  that  century.  In  wealth  and 
in  prestige  of  position  the  Church  had  lost 


Religions,  Ancient  and  Modern  111 

much  ground  since  the  days  of  Madame  de 
la  Barca  or  even  of  Abbe  Domenech.  But 
in  the  superstition  and  ignorance  of  the  peo- 
ple and  in  the  absolute  unfitness  of  the  clergy 
for  intellectual  and  spiritual  leadership  there 
had  been  no  change  at  all. 


\ 


SOCIAL  AND  MORAL  INHERITANCES 


The  peons  of  Mexico  are  weak  and  ignorant,  yes.  It  is 
not  because  they  were  made  so  by  an  all-wise  Creator,  but 
because  they  are  serfs.  Serfs  have  always  been  weak  and 
ignorant,  and  always  will  be  so.  They  are  not  serfs  because 
they  are  weak  and  ignorant;  they  are  weak  and  ignorant 
because  they  are  serfs.  It  is  the  custom  to  put  the  blame 
for  the  shortcomings  of  these  peons  upon  the  peons  them- 
selves. If  persons  are  to  be  blamed  why  not  blame  the 
hacendados,  for  it  is  they,  and  not  the  peons,  who  order 
the  lives  of  the  peons? 

The  blame  cannot  properly  be  placed  upon  either,  but 
upon  the  system  of  feudalism,  which  produces  the  same 
results  wherever  found. — John  Kenneth  Turner. 

In  view  of  this  terrible  degradation  of  the  Christian 
religion,  it  is  little  wonder  that  the  morals  of  the  people 
have  suffered  in  a corresponding  degree.  Marriage  among 
a large  proportion  of  the  poorer  classes  is  looked  upon  as  a 
useless  formality,  an  expensive  luxury  which  they  can  ill 
afford.  This  is  due  to  the  exorbitant  fees  which  the  Church 
demands  under  penalty  of  excommunication;  and  partly, 
also,  to  the  openly  immoral  lives  of  many  of  the  clergy. 
Baptism  is  also  very  widely  neglected  because  the  people 
are  too  poor  to  pay  the  fee.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the 
intellectual  stimulus  which  Mexico  has  recently  received, 
through  contact  with  other  nations,  has  led  to  a wholesale 
rebellion  against  this  travesty  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Of  those  who  are  responsible  for  Mexico’s  great  advance- 
ment in  the  past  fifty  years,  the  majority  have  broken 
with  the  Roman  Church,  and  are  openly  hostile  to  it. 
The  most  enlightened  ones  of  the  nation,  in  other  words, 
have  renounced  the  only  religion  they  have  ever  known. — 
Lefford  M.  A.  Haughwout. 


CHAPTER  IV 


SOCIAL,  AND  MORAL  INHERITANCES 

Ignorance  the  Mother  of  Evil.  In  all  nations 
moral  conditions  are  intimately  bound  up 
with  intellectual  life.  Ignorant  men  may  be 
good,  and  educated  men  bad,  but  taking 
whole  nations  into  account,  ignorance  is  the 
mother  of  evil.  This  is  not  because  an  illit- 
erate man  cannot  be  a good  man,  but  because 
ignorance  means  weakness,  and  weakness 
exposes  humanity  to  moral  deterioration  as 
well  as  to  many  other  evils.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  in  regard  to  social  life.  The  com- 
munity runs  more  of  risk  in  its  morals  by 
living  in  ignorance  than  does  the  individual. 
Social  evils  are  those  that  man  perpetuates 
on  man — and  woman.  Professor  Ross  has 
distinguished  between  vice,  the  wrong  a man 
commits  against  himself,  and  sin,  the  evil 
that  he  does  to  his  fellows.  Using  the  words 
in  this  sense  it  is  easy  to  see  how  sin  will 
abound  where  men  are  helpless  through  ig- 
norance. Their  helplessness  makes  them 
easy  victims,  both  of  designing  men  and  of 
115 


116 


Mexico  To-Day 


adverse  conditions.  Even  vice  increases 
when  artificially  fomented.  The  crowding 
of  tenements,  for  example,  has  a direct  bear- 
ing upon  the  morals  of  the  people  who  live 
in  the  slum  districts.  It  is  naturally  impos- 
sible to  parcel  out  responsibility  in  matters 
of  this  kind.  No  adverse  conditions  excuse 
a man  or  a people  from  the  struggle  for 
moral  excellence,  but  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
conditions  often  make  that  struggle  heavier 
and  more  hopeless  than  it  should  be. 

Causes  of  Ignorance  in  Mexico.  In  Mexico,  in- 
tellectual limitations  have  sent  down  deep 
and  widespread  roots.  We  have  seen  how 
there  was  a sort  of  conspiracy  of  influences 
to  keep  the  bulk  of  the  people  of  that  land 
in  ignorance.  The  landowners  preferred  to 
deal  with  an  ignorant  clientage  because  such 
people  are  easier  to  exploit.  So  of  the  min- 
ing interests.  The  ignorant  peon  was  help- 
less. He  could  not  combine  with  his  fellows. 
He  could  not  defend  his  rights  against 
crooked  bookkeeping  or  unfavorable  condi- 
tions of  labor.  He  was  a “ hand  ” and 
nothing  more.  Employers  therefore  found 
pretexts  for  keeping  the  working  people  in 
ignorance. 

Church  Did  Not  Befriend  Education.  Church 
leaders  also  gradually  reached  the  attitude 


Social  and  Mobal  Inhekitances  117 

of  discouraging  the  education  of  the  people. 
They  did  not  really  need  to  know  much,  so 
it  was  argued.  Their  land  smiled  with 
plenty.  The  climate  made  small  demands  in 
the  matter  of  clothes  and  houses.  Their 
spiritual  advisers  assumed  full  responsi- 
bility in  regard  to  their  future  welfare. 
The  Spanish  government  was  equally  pater- 
nal in  taking  entire  charge  of  their  present 
interests.  Why  then  should  they  “ heat 
their  heads,”  as  the  Spanish  idiom  puts  it, 
in  a struggle  for  education,  for  information, 
for  intellectual  growth?  There  were  prac- 
tically no  books,  for  the  Index  Expurgato- 
rius  suppressed  them.  There  were  few  pa- 
pers, because  the  government  exercised  a 
severe  censorship.  There  were  no  public 
schools — no  demand  for  them,  no  houses,  no 
teachers,  no  money  provided.  The  country 
floated  gently  down  the  stream  of  years  in 
contented  ignorance.  Eighty  per  cent,  and 
more  of  its  people  were  illiterate.  There 
were  a few  schools  for  the  children  of  the 
rich,  and  the  government  endowed  profes- 
sional academies  and  even  supplied  scholar- 
ships for  foreign  study.  The  Church  had 
seminaries  for  its  priests  and  occasional  pa- 
rochial schools  of  a primitive  order  for  its 
parishioners’  children.  The  catechism  by 


118 


Mexico  To-Day 


rote  and  something  of  the  “ lives  of  the 
saints  ” comprised  the  curriculum  of  these* 
schools.  They  did  not,  for  the  most  part, 
rise  even  to  the  dignity  of  primary  schools. 
Neither  master  nor  parents  thought  it  im- 
portant that  the  children  should  learn  to 
read.  Of  course  the  children  fell  in  with  this 
kind  of  public  sentiment  willingly  enough. 

Evil  Consequences.  Many  and  varied  conse- 
quences can  be  traced  to  this  state  of  con- 
tented ignorance.  It  went  on  for  centuries. 
The  social  customs  which  grew  out  of  it  had 
time  to  petrify.  It  is  the  tendency  of  cus- 
tom to  grow  into  law,  especially  among  a 
people  dependent  upon  tradition  and  on 
word  of  mouth  precepts  for  its  intellectual 
life.  Some  of  the  traditions  that  came  to 
be  handed  down  were  far  from  helpful  and 
elevating  when  translated  into  practise. 
There  are  conditions  in  Mexican  society  yet 
which  shock  the  observer  but  which  do  not 
shock  the  Mexicans.  They  are  used  to 
them.  They  see  in  them  practises  sanc- 
tioned by  custom  running  back  beyond  the 
memory  of  their  fathers.  Naturally  they 
reason  that  what  has  been  done  so  long  can 
not  be  much  amiss. 

Want  of  Moral  Sanctions.  Many  of  these  ob- 
jectionable practises  might  have  been  reme- 


Social,  and  Moral  Inheritances  119 

died  had  the  Church  supplied  a moral  sanc- 
tion to  life.  But  gradually  the  religious  life 
of  the  people,  guided  wholly  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  came  to  divorce  itself  from 
morals.  The  demands  which  Catholicism 
made  could  be  met  without  regard  to  the 
spiritual  and  ethical  life.  They  were  mostly 
compliance  with  rites  and  ceremonies,  im- 
plicit obedience  to  the  priest,  and  a spirit  of 
hearty  intolerance  for  all  dissent.  None 
of  these  have  to  do  with  morals.  Hence, 
humanly  speaking,  a man  could  be  as 
immoral  as  he  liked  and  remain  a good 
Catholic. 

Industrial  Oppression.  Let  us  look  for  a mo- 
ment at  industrial  conditions.  One  phase 
of  these  which  has  had  a wide  influence  is 
the  peonage  system.  This  is,  in  brief,  a 
plan  by  which  the  employer  of  laborers 
secures  a control  over  them  not  differing 
in  any  essential  point  from  actual  owner- 
ship. At  first  they  were  “ commended  ” to 
him  by  the  Church  in  a decree  which  the 
state  felt  bound  to  enforce.  If  any  of  these 
“ heathen  ” workmen  got  tired  of  the  means 
used  to  make  a Christian  of  him  and  ran 
away,  he  was  brought  back  like  any  other 
escaped  prisoner  and  turned  over  to  his  mas- 
ter to  be  “ converted.”  After  this  farce  of 


120 


Mexico  To-Day 


“ missionary  ” work  liad  been  ended  by  the 
decree  of  Charles  V abolishing  the  encomi- 
endas,  laws  governing  the  relation  of  labor- 
ers and  employer  were  enacted  in  Mexico 
which  virtually  perpetuated  the  system  of 
peonage  already  begun.  These  enactments 
were,  of  course,  all  favorable  to  the  em- 
ployer, for  they  were  devised  and  passed  by 
the  wealthy  Spaniards  and  enforced  by  a 
government  which  was  under  their  control. 
The  most  telling  of  them  was  a law  that  no 
laborer  could  leave  the  hacienda  of  his  em- 
ployer so  long  as  he  was  indebted  to  it.  In 
case  he  did  go  away  while  in  debt,  he  could 
be  arrested  and  brought  back  and  made  to 
work  out  his  indebtedness. 

Hoary  Abuses.  These  iniquitous  laws  re- 
mained on  the  statute-book  for  centuries. 
The  customs  bred  by  them  became  hoary  tra- 
ditions. The  working  people  were  power- 
less to  protest.  They  had  no  opportunity 
of  organizing  for  joint  action,  and  no  ca- 
pacity for  it.  Even  after  the  coming  of  in- 
dependence, congress  and  the  state  legisla- 
tures were  made  up  almost  wholly  from  the 
employers’  class.  So  the  laws,  with  slight ( 
modifications,  held  on — in  some  states  they 
seem  even  yet  to  be  in  force.  President 
Diaz  some  twenty  years  ago  made  a stout 


HOMES  OF  THE  POOR 


INTERIOR  OF  HOME  OF  A WEALTHY  GENTLEMAN 


Social,  and  Moral  Inheritances  121 

attack  on  the  custom  of  paying  in  scrip  and 
succeeded  in  having  it  abolished  by  a federal 
law  establishing  a uniform  national  cur- 
rency and  outlawing  all  substitutes.  But 
the  peonage  laws,  as  such,  and  the  exemp- 
tion of  unimproved  lands  from  taxation,  are 
matters  with  which  state  legislatures  deal. 
The  efforts  of  the  federal  government  under 
Diaz  to  do  away  with  these  abuses  were  only 
partially  successful. 

Resulting  Poverty.  Their  helplessness  un- 
der such  laws  and  customs  has  inflicted  upon 
the  working  people  of  Mexico  a degrading 
state  of  poverty.  In  food  and  clothing  and 
housing,  through  long  usage  they  have  be- 
come contented — seemingly,  at  least — with 
most  intolerable  conditions.  They  eat  noth- 
ing but  boiled  beans  and  corn  cakes.  They 
dress  through  all  seasons  in  thin  and  cheap 
cotton.  They  live  in  hovels.  Wages  are 
now  slowly  rising  and  better  food  and 
clothes  are  coming  along  with  the  increase. 
But  it  wrings  the  heart  to  think  of  the  long 
centuries  in  which  the  vast  majority  of  Mex- 
ico’s people  have  been  subjected  to  a state 
of  poverty  so  deep  and  so  utterly  hopeless. 
Their  complete  subjugation  and  the  utter 
lack  of  any  outlook  for  improvement  in  their 
condition  have  given  them  an  air  of  patient 


122 


Mexico  To-Day 


resignation  that  is  pathetic.  It  also  be- 
tokens a state  of  mind  that  is  disastrous. 
The  effort  to  establish  a stable  government 
in  Mexico  has  been  wrecked  repeatedly  on 
this  great  stone  of  dead  inertia,  of  hopeless 
indifference,  of  inefficiency  bred  by  igno- 
rance and  the  want  of  ideals. 

Moral  Inheritances.  In  many  ways  other 
than  in  the  industrial  and  political  realm 
Mexico  is  still  paying  toll  on  her  days  of  op- 
pression. Her  moral  atmosphere  has  been 
tainted  by  conditions  which  came  of  the  ab- 
normal social  and  political  situation  follow- 
ing the  conquest,  and  of  the  fact  that  her 
religion,  instead  of  remedying  abuses,  but 
made  them  worse.  A majority  of  Mexico’s 
people  long  were,  and  are  even  yet,  in  a state 
which  may  be  described  as  servile.  People 
who  virtually  belong  to  others,  who  must 
look  to  others  for  food  and  clothes  and  all 
that  makes  life  endurable,  if  not  actually  for 
life  itself,  need  the  steadying  power  of  a 
spiritual  religion.  The  man  whose  soul  is 
free  can  afford  to  be  indifferent  to  shackles 
upon  his  body.  But  if  people  exposed  to 
such  material  conditions  as  have  been  de- 
scribed have  also  a material  religion,  one  of 
rites  and  forms,  of  images,  recited  prayers, 
interceding  priests,  and  meager  instruction, 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  123 

then  their  religion,  instead  of  consoling  and 
remedying,  will  but  exaggerate  their  indus- 
trial misfortunes. 

Ritual  No  Substitute  for  Teaching.  This  is 
what  has  happened  in  Mexico.  The  people,, 
naturally  religious,  got  whatever  of  comfort 
they  could  out  of  the  teachings  of  Rome. 
They  rejoiced  especially  in  the  worship  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  believing  her  to  be  com- 
passionate. They  cajoled  and  petted,  and 
sometimes  punished,  the  images  of  favorite 
saints, — for  them  the  image  is  the  saint, — 
they  rejoiced  in  musical  masses,  processions 
on  feast  days,  and  the  thousand  other  osten- 
tatious and  showy  ways  of  their  Church. 
But  they  had  from  it  no  moral  backing.  The 
priests  set  them  bad  examples.  Most  of  the 
clergy  were  self-indulgent  and  corrupt  men. 
Indeed,  in  twenty-five  years  I have  seldom 
found  a Mexican  of  intelligence  who  would 
admit  that  any  of  the  priests  were  good  men. 
They  advanced  a fantastic  theory  that  one 
might  be  a bad  man  without  ceasing  to  be  a 
good  priest,  and  resting  on  this  gave  them- 
selves to  excesses  of  every  kind. 

The  Sin  of  lying.  There  are  a few  sins  that 
are  peculiarly  the  temptation  of  subject  peo- 
ples. One  of  them  is  lying.  Men  who  are 
subject  to  the  whim  of  others  come  to  think 


124 


Mexico  To-Day 


of  interest  first  and  truth  second.  They  tell 
what  they  think  will  be  best  for  them.  They 
instinctively  adopt  a policy  of  concealment 
and  deceit.  In  every  age  and  nation,  lying 
is  recognized  as  a vice  of  slaves.  Now  the 
Mexican  was  not,  and  is  not,  technically  a 
slave.  But  we  have  seen  how  politically,  in- 
dustrially, socially,  religiously,  he  was  a sub- 
ject. He  was  oppressed.  He  was  kept 
down.  He  was  shackled  by  every  manner  of 
limitation.  He  came,  perforce,  to  have  the 
servile  attitude  of  mind.  Nor  would  I say 
that  Mexico  is  a land  of  liars.  Such  a state- 
ment would  be  a wrong  and  an  untruth.  It 
is  undeniable,  however,  that  truth  is  not  ex- 
alted there  as  it  might  be.  It  has  long  been 
discounted.  Nobody  takes  offense  at  being 
called  a liar.  It  is  mere  badinage.  The 
word  has  lost  its  bitterness.  I have  heard 
students  say  of  an  incorrect  exercise,  “ This 
thing  is  full  of  lies.”  A young  man  said  to 
another  in  a group  as  I passed,  “ Well,  you 
have  been  about  a good  deal,  but  you  are  as 
big  a liar  as  ever,  ’ ’ at  which  they  all  laughed. 

The  Claims  of  Politeness.  Truth  has  had  to 
make  way  for  all  sorts  of  things.  It  is  sec- 
ondary, for  example,  to  politeness.  That  is 
measurably  the  case  everywhere.  A Mexi- 
can will,  on  principle,  tell  a lie  rather  than 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  125 

seem  impolite.  It  is  to  Mm  the  lesser  of 
two  faults.  Once  a Mexican  preacher  and  I 
rode  into  a little  town  from  a horseback  trip 
into  the  interior.  I was  going  to  take  the 
train  next  morning,  he  to  go  on  with  the 
horses  another  day’s  ride  to  where  he  lived. 
My  horse  was  a hired  one,  he  rode  his  own. 
I stopped  at  a hotel,  but  he  preferred  to  go 
to  the  meson  (inn),  in  order  to  be  near  the 
horses  and  get  an  early  start.  I invited  him 
to  have  supper  with  me.  After  seeing  the 
horses  cared  for  we  went  over  to  the  hotel. 
The  proprietor  welcomed  us  effusively. 
After  I had  arranged  for  supper  and  a room 
he  rubbed  his  hands  together  and  said  “ I 
have  also  stables  for  your  horses,  gentlemen, 
if  you  need  them.”  I had  no  reply  to  make, 
thinking  it  was  none  of  his  business  what  we 
did  with  our  horses.  Not  so  my  Mexican 
brother,  who  at  once  spoke  up  and  said, 
“ Oh,  we  just  had  some  borrowed  horses  and 
have  been  to  return  them  to  their  owners!  ” 
I was  dumfounded.  But  I could  not  think 
of  anything  to  say  that  offered  any  prospect 
of  accomplishing  good,  so  I said  notMng. 

Use  of  Words.  The  unreliability  of  the 
working  classes  of  Mexico  is  proverbial.  If 
asked  a question,  they  look  sharply  to  see  if 
they  can  make  out  the  answer  you  prefer, 


126 


Mexico  To-Day 


and  then  reply  accordingly.  They  do  not 
like  to  confess  ignorance,  and  have  a trying 
habit  of  saying,  “ Si,  senor,”  to  all  ques- 
tions for  which  yes  or  no  may  serve  as  an 
answer.  Their  promises  are  utterly  futile, 
both  because  of  their  want  of  a sense  of  the 
value  of  truth  and  of  their  lack  of  any  under- 
standing of  time.  “ To-morrow  ” means 
any  future  time.  They  will  not  refuse  even 
a beggar  outright,  but  will  ask  him  to  return 
“ to-morrow.”  A carpenter  came  once  to 
see  me  about  some  work  which  I was  anxious 
to  have  done,  but  as  it  was  Sunday  when  he 
came  I explained  my  objection  to  doing  busi- 
ness that  day  and  asked  him  to  come  back 
“ to-morrow.”  The  word  was  fatal.  He 
thought  I was  dismissing  him,  and  never  re- 
turned. The  dilatory  and  incompetent  ways 
of  the  working  people  are  constantly  cov- 
ered up  by  fabrications.  If  you  ask  a man 
about  a task  which  you  have  not  seen  he  will 
usually  claim  to  have  done  all  he  thinks  you 
expect  him  to  have  done. 

Business  Men  Eeliable.  Though  this  disre- 
gard of  truth  has  largely  pervaded  society, 
it  has  not,  strange  to  say,  greatly  affected 
the  honor  and  reliability  of  business  firms. 
Manufacturers  and  wholesale  dealers  agree 
that  there  are  no  more  reliable  business  men 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  127 

to  be  found  than  the  established  firms  of 
Mexico.  They  are  often  exasperatingly 
slow,  and  consider  an  extension  of  credit  on 
their  orders  for  two  or  three  years  nothing 
unreasonable.  Their  own  rule  of  business 
is  the  opposite  of  that  commonly  adopted  in 
the  United  States.  Their  motto  seems  to  be 
slow  sales  and  big  profits.  This  suits  them 
and  apparently  suits  their  customers  also. 
It  is  a wise  manufacturer  who  adjusts  him- 
self to  it  and  establishes  and  maintains  con- 
fidential relations  with  such  firms.  They 
are  almost  always  solid  financially,  they 
have  a rich  field,  and  they  do  business 
largely  on  the  basis  of  personal  relations 
and  acquaintanceship. 

Sin  of  Stealing.  This  digression  naturally 
brings  me  to  consider  that  failing  which  is 
so  close  akin  to  lying,  namely,  stealing. 
Concerning  this  we  may  say  as  of  lying: 
“ Mexico  is  not  a land  of  thieves,  yet  pilfer- 
ing is  far  too  common  there  and  is  looked 
upon  with  much  more  of  tolerance  than  it 
ought  to  be.”  Stealing  is  like  lying  in  being 
a sort  of  natural  outgrowth  of  servility. 
Slaves,  whether  industrial  or  chattel,  are  al- 
ways poor.  They  are  without  the  incentive 
of  self-respect.  They  are  apt  even  to  reason 
that  they  have  certain  rights  to  the  belong- 


128 


Mexico  To-Day 


ings  of  their  masters,  since  they  too  are 
property.  The  old  darky  defended  stealing 
from  his  master  on  the  ground  that  it  was 
his  master’s  property  that  was  benefited. 
He  was  slow  to  drive  the  hogs  out  of  the 
cornfield  because  it  was  both  “ massa’s  cohn 
and  massa’s  hogs.” 

Skilful  Pilfering.  It  is  useless  to  deny  that 
in  this  respect,  too,  the  laboring  people  of 
Mexico  still  show  traces  of  their  long  ap- 
prenticeship in  servility.  They  have  an  in- 
veterate weakness  for  picking  up  loose  ob- 
jects, whether  needful  to  them  or  not.  As 
for  that,  they  are  so  poor  that  they  can  make 
some  use  of  almost  anything,  and,  in  the 
cities,  especially,  can  either  sell  or  pawn  any 
object  whatever  for  some  amount.  In  Mex- 
ico City  there  was  long  maintained  a 
“ thieves’  market  ” — a sort  of  clearing- 
house of  all  kinds  of  objects  of  small  value. 
To  it  property  owners  went  to  recover 
knives,  hatchets,  hammers,  shoes,  keys,  hats, 
chains,  locks,  umbrellas,  and  various  other 
small  objects  that  had  walked  off.  It  was 
tolerated  by  a sort  of  agreement  on  the  part 
of  both  citizens  and  police  that  it  was  sim- 
pler and  better  to  buy  back  such  things  than 
to  try  to  identify  and  punish  the  thieves. 
When  I first  went  to  Mexico  (1884)  there 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  129 

was  great  scarcity  in  that  country  of  iron 
and  steel.  None  of  the  country’s  own  re- 
sources for  this  material  had  been  properly 
developed  and  an  almost  prohibitive  tariff 
kept  out  foreign  supplies  or  forced  them  up 
to  enormous  prices.  Now  the  desire  of  ev- 
ery Mexican’s  heart  is  to  have  a good  ma- 
chete or  puntilla  to  carry.  The  machete  is 
a short  sword  or  long  knife,  something  like 
a corn-cutter  knife.  The  puntilla  is  a dag- 
ger, long  or  short,  wide  or  slender,  heavy  or 
keen,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  always  sharp- 
ened ready  for  use.  Their  smiths  are  skil- 
ful in  the  making  and  tempering  of  these 
highly  valued  tools,  and  will  make  them  out 
of  almost  any  bit  of  good  iron  or  of  steel  that 
can  be  laid  hands  on.  I recall  a machete 
which  was  most  highly  valued  by  one  of  my 
old  friends — he  had  carried  it  for  nearly 
fifty  years — which  had  been  made  out  of  a 
blacksmith’s  rasp.  Some  of  the  corruga- 
tions could  be  traced  on  the  side  of  it  still. 
This  pressing  demand  for  steel  resulted  in 
a frequency  and  variety  of  pilfering  which 
greatly  interested  and  often  amused  me. 
The  railroads  were  the  greatest  sufferers. 
The  tools  used  on  track  work  had  to  be  con- 
stantly watched.  The  flowing  blanket,  which 
is  an  essential  part  of  a Mexican’s  dress,  can 


130 


Mexico  To-Day 


easily  be  thrown  around  any  object  of  mod- 
erate size.  An  engineer  in  charge  of  some 
track  construction  told  me  that  on  a certain 
occasion  he  noticed  one  of  a group  of  idlers 
who  had  been  talking  with  his  men  moving 
off  rather  stiffly.  He  stepped  np  and  was 
greatly  interested  to  find  that,  by  some  gym- 
nastic feat  which  he  does  not  yet  understand, 
the  man  had  thrust  down  the  inside  of  his 
loose  cotton  trousers-leg  a crowbar  about 
five  feet  long  and  weighing  something  like 
twenty  pounds,  and  was  making  off  with  his 
treasure.  Every  detachable  bit  of  metal 
about  the  tracks  was  liable  to  disappear — 
switch  bars,  levers,  rods,  fish-plates,  and 
even  the  spikes  which  hold  down  the  rails. 
Indeed  the  stealing  of  spikes  became  so  com- 
mon, and  so  many  disastrous  train  wrecks 
occurred  in  consequence,  that  a drastic  law 
was  passed  by  which  this  was  made  a capital 
offense. 

Position  of  Woman.  Another  of  Mexico’s 
unhappy  inheritances  has  been  the  degrada- 
tion of  her  womanhood.  The  union  of 
Spaniard  and  Mexican  was  usually  by  the 
marriage  of  a native  woman  to  a Spanish 
husband.  It  can  be  readily  seen  how  favor- 
able the  conditions  were  for  the  domineering 
of  husband  over  wife.  The  Indian,  after  the 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  131 

manner  of  primitive  peoples,  accepted  the 
degradation  of  the  squaw  as  a matter  of 
course.  The  Spanish  conquistador es  were 
not  likely  to  take  a better  view  of  their  na- 
tive wives  than  the  native  husbands  were 
accustomed  to.  Inferiority  of  every  kind 
was  thus  thrust  upon  the  women  of  a whole 
nation  and  meekly  accepted  by  them.  And 
the  nation  has  not  recovered  from  the  effects 
to  this  day. 

Degradation  of  Ignorance.  It  is  especially 
true  that  intellectual  inferiority — accepted 
as  such  even  if  not  actual — soon  brings  in 
its  train  moral  degradation.  When  men 
look  upon  their  wives  as  their  inferiors  they 
are  not  likely  to  be  true  to  them.  Wives  will 
not  be,  in  the  long  run,  better  than  their  hus- 
bands. In  all  frankness  it  must  be  said  that 
the  system  of  espionage  inculcated  by  the 
Catholic  manner  of  education  does  not  tend 
to  increase  but  rather  to  diminish  the  sanc- 
tity of  womanhood.  A celibate  priesthood 
and  the  auricular  confession  have  also  con- 
tributed their  part — not  a small  one — to 
weaken  the  true  sanctions  of  virtue  among 
the  women. 

Conditions  as  to  Marriage.  That  all  these  in- 
fluences have  robbed  the  womanhood  of 
Mexico  of  womanly  virtue  is  not,  of  course, 


132 


Mexico  To-Day 


wholly  true.  Yet  laxness  of  standards  is 
commoner  in  that  country  than  it  should  be. 
The  men  of  the  better  class  disregard  social 
conventions  most  openly,  and  among  the  ig- 
norant and  poor  there  is  much  neglect  of 
marriage.  At  this  point  should  be  entered 
another  count  in  the  charge  against  the  Rom- 
ish Church,  namely,  that  its  priests  are  ac- 
customed to  charge  prohibitive  prices  for 
celebrating  marriages,  while  at  the  same 
time  teaching  the  people  that  civil  marriage 
is  sinful  and  the  ceremony  void.  To  get  the 
blessing  of  the  Church  on  his  wedding  costs 
a working  man  a sum  of  money — required  in 
advance — which  is  essentially  prohibitive. 
He  simply  cannot  save  that  much.  The  re- 
sult has  been  and  still  is  that  thousands  of 
couples  live  together  for  years  without  be- 
ing married  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
children  are  born  out  of  wedlock.  It  often 
happens  that  before  converts  can  be  received 
into  a Protestant  Church  they  have  to  be 
married,  though  at  the  time  they  may  have 
well  grown  and  numerous  children. 

The  Degradation  of  Womanhood.  The  direct 
tendency  of  such  a state  of  things  is  the 
degradation  of  womanhood.  When  the 
sanctions  of  law  and  of  conscience  fail  be- 
cause both  human  and  divine  laws  are  set 


STREET  GAMBLING 


GROUP  OF  "WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN 


Social,  and  Moral  Inheritances  133 

aside,  then  public  respect  soon  follows.  So- 
ciety does  not  take  lightly  the  disregarding 
of  its  conventions  and  rules.  Many  other 
consequences  follow  in  the  train  of  such  dis- 
regard. The  worst  of  all  is  woman’s  loss  of 
respect  for  herself.  The  regard  of  society 
at  large,  the  respect  of  the  public,  the  re- 
spect and  esteem  even  of  her  own  husband, 
she  can  better  dispense  with  than  with  her 
own  self-esteem.  When  that  is  gone,  all  is 
gone. 

The  Mexican  Woman.  The  conditions  which 
I have  been  describing  obtain,  of  course, 
chiefly  among  the  poorer  classes.  But  it  is 
these  classes  which  make  up  the  preponder- 
ating element  in  the  population  of  Mexico. 
As  modern  educational  methods  spread,  the 
people  are  rising  in  the  scale  of  intelligence 
and  influence.  It  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  they  rise  also  in  the  scale  of 
morals.  Otherwise  the  future  population  of 
Mexico  will  be  poisoned  in  its  very  fountain- 
head. Nothing  but  the  uplifting  and  stimu- 
lating influence  of  genuine  Christian  educa- 
tion can  furnish  an  antidote  to  the  evil 
already  injected  into  the  life  of  the  people. 
And  the  womanhood  of  that  land — amiable, 
domestic,  warm-hearted,  vivacious,  patient, 
industrious — the  womanhood  of  Mexico, 


Mexico  To-Day 


134 

! 

which  has  suffered  so  many  wrongs,  borne 
them  so  nobly,  achieved  already  so  fair  a 
fame,  will  be  the  first  and  greatest  gainer  in 
the  coming  intellectual  and  moral  rebirth  of 
their  country. 

Convent  Ideal  in  Education.  The  training  of 
the  women  among  the  more  favored  ele- 
ments in  Mexican  society  has  been  lightly 
touched  upon.  The  convent  idea  of  purity 
and  holiness — a purity  which  can  only  be 
guaranteed  by  vows  and  an  impassable  wall 
— does  little  to  strengthen  the  moral  fiber  of 
girls.  Schoolgirls  under  the  convent  sys- 
tem are  constantly  watched.  They  infer,  by 
the  very  force  of  circumstances,  that  they 
are  kept  from  sin  only  by  influences  outside 
themselves.  The  effect  of  all  this  on  their 
standards  of  thinking  cannot  be  happy.  In 
their  homes,  as  daughters  and  wives,  they 
are  treated  with  the  same  open  want  of  con- 
fidence. No  young  woman  sees  gentlemen 
friends  alone.  Courting  must  be  done  sur- 
reptitiously through  iron-barred  windows. 
The  bars  over  the  windows  in  Mexican 
homes  are  designed  quite  as  much  to  keep 
women  in  as  to  keep  burglars  out.  The 
whole  system  is  ridiculous,  of  course,  and  is 
rapidly  yielding  to  enlightened  public  sen- 
timent. But  it  has  done  its  part  in  working 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  135 

disaster  in  not  a few  directions  to  Mexican 
society  of  yesterday  and  to-day. 

Domestic  Drudges.  One  thing  more  I must 
mention  before  dismissing  this  subject  of 
the  social  status  of  Mexico’s  women.  Those 
of  the  poorer  classes  are  slaves  to  a most 
cumbersome  form  of  housework.  Mention 
has  been  made  of  the  com  cakes  or  tortillas 
which  are  the  staple  food  of  the  people  of 
this  class.  The  grinding  of  the  corn  for 
these  cakes  is  a never-ending  task  for  the 
women.  The  grains  of  Indian  corn  are 
soaked  in  weak  lye  or  a solution  of  lime  till 
the  husk  dissolves.  They  are  then  while 
still  moist  put  into  the  mill.  This  is  not 
the  round  mill  of  Palestine,  of  which  two 
women  together  turn  the  upper  stone.  The 
upper  stone  of  the  Mexican  mill  does  not 
turn.  It  is  a short  stone,  the  size  of  a man’s 
arm,  called  a memo,  that  is  rubbed  up  and 
down  on  the  face  of  the  lower  stone,  which  is 
set  in  a sloping  position.  Both  stones  are 
of  hard  volcanic  rock,  and  the  implement  is 
called  a metate.  It  is  operated  by  a single 
woman,  who  kneels  and  patiently  scrubs  the 
heavy  pestle  up  and  down,  laid  sidewise  on 
the  face  of  the  metate  and  held  by  each  end, 
much  as  a washerwoman  uses  a wash-board. 
The  product  of  the  moist  hominy  (nishta- 


136 


Mexico  To-Day 


mal)  macerated  thus  is  dough,  rather  than 
flour,  a damp  mass,  which  is  at  once  patted 
into  thin  cakes  and  baked.  Made  from  se- 
lected corn  these  tortillas  are  very  good  and 
wholesome,  but  the  making  of  them  is  a 
slavish  drudgery.  Many  a time  when  enter- 
tained in  humble  Mexican  homes  I have 
heard  when  first  awake  in  the  darkness  and 
chill  of  the  early  morning  the  dull  scrub, 
scrub  of  the  mano  on  the  metate.  The 
house-mother  was  already  up  and  on  her 
knees  at  the  task  of  bread-making  for  the 
family,  a task  that  not  only  consumes  hours 
of  time  but  entails  the  heaviest  kind  of 
manual  labor.  And  many  other  forms  of 
woman’s  work  have  been  in  Mexico  equally 
primitive  and  exacting,  demanding  an  ex- 
penditure of  energy  and  of  time  that  has 
stood  much  in  the  way  of  her  intellectual 
progress  and  higher  moral  enlightenment. 

Church  and  Public  Schools.  The  hostility  of 
the  Catholic  Church  to  the  public  school  sys- 
tem has  done  much  mischief.  In  the  first 
place  it  has  hindered  the  cause  of  education, 
and  education  is  one  of  Mexico’s  most  crying 
needs.  Besides,  in  the  second  place,  this  an- 
tagonism of  the  Church  to  the  public  school 
reacts  directly  on  public  morals.  Since  the 
Church  condemns  the  schools,  all  who  send 


WOMAN  WHO  WALKED  100  MILES  TO  FIND  A PROTESTANT 
CHUllCII 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  137 

to  them,  all  who  teach  in  them,  all  who  are 
taught,  must  look  upon  themselves  as  sinners 
— whether  they  will  or  not.  Their  consciences 
are  ‘ ‘ offended.  ’ ’ In  retaliation  or  in  despera- 
tion they  often  become  or  proclaim  themselves 
unbelievers  or  atheists.  Even  young  women, 
studying  in  the  state  normal  schools  and 
prospective  teachers  of  the  country’s  chil- 
dren, have  to  think  of  themselves  as  defiant 
unbelievers.  The  Church — Christianity — and 
education  are  thus  set  in  antagonism.  Re- 
ligion and  morality  part  company.  That 
which  should  be  a saving  force  in  society 
becomes  a destructive  influence. 

The  Church  in  Mexico.  It  is  through  this 
and  other  similar  proceedings  that  the  Cath- 
olic Church  has  about  lost  its  hold  upon  the 
thinking  people  of  Mexico.  In  fact  it  has 
but  slight  power  over  the  thought  of  any 
class ; such  grasp  as  remains  to  it  is  because 
of  custom  and  tradition  rather  than  by  rea- 
soned conclusions.  This  fact  accounts  for 
the  surprising  progress  of  the  Protestant 
Churches.  But  only  a beginning  has  been 
made  in  remedying  the  situation.  Purer 
forms  of  Christianity  are  unknown  to  them. 
Unless  religion  can  be  presented  to  them  in 
terms  adjusted  to  their  present  standards  of 
intellectual  and  industrial  advance,  and  to 


138 


Mexico  To-Day 


tlieir  ideals  for  the  future,  they  will  suffer  ir- 
reparable harm.  To  remedy  their  deep- 
seated  conviction  that  Christianity  is  the  foe 
of  enlightenment  and  to  place  religion  in  its 
proper  relation,  as  the  ally  of  all  that  makes 
for  progress  and  national  well-being  as  well 
as  the  salvation  of  the  people  from  degrading 
superstition  and  open  sin,  is  an  undertaking 
which  the  evangelical  churches  having  entered 
upon  cannot  follow  up  too  earnestly. 

Need  of  the  Master.  I am  conscious  that  this 
is  a most  incomplete  and  fragmentary  account 
of  the  social  and  moral  conditions  obtaining 
to-day  in  Mexico,  and  of  the  reasons  for  them. 
I have  not  sought  to  paint  a black  picture, 
but  limitations  of  space  have  made  it  impos- 
sible to  soften  and  qualify.  I am  sure  that 
those  conditions  are  improving.  And  I am 
equally  sure  that  no  other  influence  for  their 
betterment  can  begin  to  compare  with  the 
gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  has  a healing 
touch  for  both  the  intellectual  and  the  moral 
life.  Its  effect  upon  a nation,  upon  the 
women  of  a nation,  especially,  who  are  the 
mothers  of  the  nation  to  be,  is  symbolized 
by  the  experience  of  that  woman  who,  draw- 
ing near  to  the  Master  in  the  midst  of  a 
throng,  timidly  touched  his  garment.  In- 
stantly she  knew  within  herself  that  she  was 


Social  and  Moral  Inheritances  139 

healed,  while  all  the  hands  and  voices  of  the 
multitude  could  not  conceal  from  him  the 
sense  that  a hand  of  faith — the  tefader,  ap- 
pealing, soothing,  ministering  hand  of  a 
woman — had  been  stretched  out  to  him.  So 
Mexico  stretches  out  her  hand  to-day.  In  the 
midst  of  the  hurrying,  careless  throng,  let  us 
pray  that  with  it  she  may  reach  the  garment 
of  One  who  is  able  to  heal  all  her  diseases. 


THE  INTELLECTUAL  AWAKENING 
DURING  THE  NINETEENTH 
CENTURY 


The  progress  made  in  education  has  been  great  in  the 
last  quarter  of  a century.  Unfortunately  reliable  statistics 
up  to  date  are  not  available;  but  there  is  evidence  to  show 
that  the  number  of  public  schools  is  over  ten  thousand,  and 
the  attendance  well  on  toward  a million  pupils.  Since  re- 
ligious toleration  has  come  again  to  recognize  that  the 
Roman  Catholics  even  have  some  rights,  there  are  many 
parochial  schools  under  charge  of  priests  or  nuns.  There 
are,  besides,  many  private,  religious,  and  association  schools 
giving  education  to  something  like  a quarter  of  a million 
pupils.  Higher,  technical,  and  special  education  is  ad- 
mirably cared  for. — Joseph  King  Goodrich. 

The  reaction  against  the  tyranny  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  driven  thousands  of  the  thinking  men  of  Mexico 
completely  over  to  unbelief  in  all  of  its  various  forms. 
Atheism,  agnosticism,  pantheism,  spiritualism,  and  almost 
every  other  “ ism  ” in  which  men  have  tried  to  satisfy  their 
spiritual  natures  are  rampant.  At  least  seventy-five  per 
cent,  of  the  male  population  who  can  read  and  write  are 
unbelievers.  Many  of  them  outwardly  conform  to  the 
Catholic  Church  by  going  to  mass  once  a year,  but  it  is 
done  only  to  sa%Te  social  ostracism  or  assure  stability  in 
business.  Nature’s  barriers,  enactments  of  man,  and  un- 
belief are  thus  the  three  great  towers  of  the  fortress  which 
stand  in  the  way  of  the  rapid  march  of  the  gospel  army. 
The  first  is  gradually  giving  way  before  the  advance  of 
railroads  and  progressive  public  officers  who  are  construct- 
ing good  roads.  The  second  will  be  removed  when  the 
country  is  thoroughly  prepared  for  it.  The  last  is  the 
greatest  and  is  most  strongly  built.  It  is  far  easier  to 
transplant  faith  than  to  grow  it  anew. — W.  E.  Vanderbilt. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  INTELLECTUAL  AWAKENING  DURING  THE 
NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

Beginning  of  a New  Day.  Though  the  new 
intellectual  movement  in  Mexico  did  not  pro- 
gress continuously  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  last  century,  it  practically  began  with 
the  century.  Its  progress  was  by  ebb  and 
flow,  sudden  starts  of  feverish  arousement 
alternating  with  long  stretches  of  apathy. 
But  of  all  the  several  impulses  which  suc- 
cessively stirred  the  soul  of  the  nation,  none 
was  more  vital,  more  fertilizing,  more  finally 
and  essentially  significant  than  the  political 
revolution  begun  in  1810. 

Shock  of  Political  Revolution.  In  1776  the 
British  colonists  of  North  America  had  sent 
into  the  beclouded  political  atmosphere  of 
the  world  the  electric  shock  of  their  declara- 
tion of  independence.  Fifteen  years  later 
the  awful  upheaval  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion followed.  Both  had  essentially  the 
same  effect.  Both  profoundly  impressed 
the  world,  because  each  of  them  was  a fresh 

143 


144 


Mexico  To-Day 


declaration  of  the  rights  of  man.  Succeed- 
ing the  chaos  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  come  a 
long  period  of  emphasis  on  government,  on 
law,  on  power,  on  the  divine  right  of  kings. 
But  the  Reformation  began  at  last  to  sow 
the  seeds  of  the  emancipation  of  the  indi- 
vidual. The  art  of  printing  came  in  just 
then,  and  set  these  seeds  flying  upon  all  the 
winds.  The  minds  of  men — of  all  sorts  and 
conditions  of  men — began  to  stir  at  this  new 
stimulus. 

Napoleon  and  American  Liberty.  The  politi- 
cal liberation  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
America  came  about  as  a secondary  reaction 
from  the  French  Revolution,  and  that  in  a 
most  unexpected  way.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion made  a way  for  the  first  Napoleon,  and 
Napoleon,  before  he  was  done  giving  rein 
to  his  vast  ambitions,  so  shook  Spain,  among 
other  European  countries,  that  her  colonies 
fell  away  from  her.  The  patriot  cause  in 
those  various  colonies  had  made  but  meager 
headway  toward  the  goal  of  liberation  till 
the  hands  of  the  mother  country  were  weak- 
ened by  the  little  Corsican.  In  Mexico  there 
was  the  singular  spectacle  toward  the  last 
of  a revolt  against  the  Spanish  crown  by 
the  Catholics,  on  the  ground  that  the  mon- 
archy of  Spain  was  no  longer  a ‘ ‘ holy  Cath- 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  145 

olic  ” institution.  When  this  element  in  the 
Mexican  population,  always  before  tories 
and  loyalists,  fell  in  with  the  rebels,  inde- 
pendence was  instantly  achieved.  Spain  at 
the  time  (1821)  was  helpless,  being  torn  with 
an  inner  struggle  between  republican  and 
monarchical  parties.  Thus  liberty,  for 
which  Hidalgo  and  Morelos  and  Allende  and 
hundreds  of  other  Mexican  patriots  had 
poured  out  their  lives,  in  vain,  as  it  then 
seemed,  and  which  during  a ten  years’  strug- 
gle had  appeared  an  ever-receding,  unattain- 
able dream,  suddenly  came  to  Mexico  over- 
night, as  it  were.  Men  woke  up  and  rubbed 
their  eyes  to  find  themselves  free. 

Freedom  Awakens.  Naturally  such  an  event 
shook  the  whole  intellectual  life  of  the  nation 
to  its  very  roots.  People  asked  themselves, 
What  is  this  independencia  about  which 
everybody  is  shouting?  What  is  it  to  be 
free?  What  kind  of  government  shall  we 
have  now?  That  wras  nearly  a hundred  years 
ago.  The  questions  are,  for  many  of  the 
people,  unanswered  still.  For  Mexico  had 
to  learn  that  to  political  liberty — if  it  is  to 
be  maintained — must  be  added  the  liberation 
mentally  of  the  individual  from  ignorance, 
superstition,  and  folly,  and  his  moral  re- 
demption from  the  shackles  of  sin.  It  has 


146 


Mexico  To-Day 


been  for  her  a hard  lesson,  and  it  is  not  yet 
fully  learned.  No  student  of  the  history  of 
the  people  can  fail,  however,  to  observe  the 
profound  change  in  their  intellectual  life 
wrought  by  this  burst  of  the  sunlight  of  lib- 
erty. They  were  not  yet  free,  but  their 
country  was  free.  They  called  themselves 
free.  They  thought  now  of  their  land  as  a 
national  entity,  entitled  henceforth  to  its 
separate  and  unfettered  life.  The  thought 
was  an  enchanting  one.  They  drank  it  in 
like  wine.  It  stirred  in  them  a deep-seated, 
inextinguishable  patriotism.  Buoyed  by  the 
success  of  their  near  neighbors  on  the  north 
they  determined  to  have  a republic,  a gov- 
ernment of  the  people,  by  the  people. 

Ideals  and  Achievement.  It  might  be  sus- 
pected from  the  indifferent  success  which 
Mexico  has  had  in  evolving  a stable  govern- 
ment that  her  ideas  of  popular  rule  are 
poorly  defined.  That  is  true,  in  a sense,  as 
we  shall  presently  see,  but  not  in  the  sense 
that  the  ideals  embodied  in  her  constitutions 
and  institutions  have  been  defective.  The 
leaders  in  the  great  struggle  for  free  gov- 
ernment have  always  known  thoroughly  the 
essential  principles  of  such  government. 
They  have  studied  and  followed  as  models 
the  best  known  republican  constitutions. 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  1-17 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  is  the 
principal  basis  of  the  two  or  three  similar 
documents  that  Mexico  has  successively 
adopted.  It  is  not  to  theoretical  defects 
of  this  kind  that  the  comparative  failure  of 
her  experiments  is  to  be  traced.  The  consti- 
tutions were  good  enough.  The  reasons 
wl^  they  would  not  “ march  ” are  to  be 
sought  in  the  people.  After  what  they 
had  gone  through  with  during  three  hun- 
dred years  of  training  in  submission,  in 
obedience,  in  servility  and  accepted  inferi- 
ority, it  was  not  possible  that  any  miracle  of 
mere  political  liberation  should  change  them 
in  a day  or  a year  into  intelligent,  composed, 
self-respecting,  and  self-controlled  citizens 
of  an  autonomous  republic.  That  transfor- 
mation has  not  even  yet  been  fully  wrought. 
What  had  been  three  hundred  years  in  do- 
ing has  not  been  undone  in  one  hundred 
years. 

Two  Points  of  Contact.  For  our  purpose 
here  we  dwell  on  two  points  only  at  which 
the  political  revolution  touched  the  intellec- 
tual life  of  the  people.  Of  course  there  were 
many  other  points  of  contact,  but  these  seem 
the  most  significant.  The  first  is  the  one 
above  hinted  at,  namely,  the  tremendous 
awakening  and  vivifying  effect  of  the  forma- 


148 


Mexico  To-Day 


tion  of  a new  national  ideal.  They  all,  down 
to  the  humblest,  went  through  the  experi- 
ence of  transferring  their  allegiance  from  a 
king,  looked  up  to  as  a vicegerent  of  heaven, 
to  a patria,  a native  land,  a government  set 
up  by  themselves.  This  deep  and  wide  in- 
tellectual upheaval  was  wonderfully  fertiliz- 
, ing.  It  set  the  people  to  thinking  of  a thou- 
sand things.  The  authority  of  the  crown 
had  always  been  allied,  in  the  thought  of  the 
people  at  least,  with  that  of  the  Church. 
Men  now  began  to  inquire  why,  if  one  had 
been  thrown  off,  the  other  should  still  be  tol- 
erated. Unfortunately  for  her,  Catholicism 
had  no  reply  to  make  to  these  inquiries. 
Hitherto  reasonings  had  been  simply  stifled. 
Men  had  had  to  yield  to  authority,  in  Church 
and  state,  because  it  was  authority.  No 
questions  were  answered.  None  were  al- 
lowed to  be  asked.  Now  had  come  a time 
when  mere  authority  did  not  suffice  to  hush 
men.  Their  minds,  thoroughly  aroused,  re- 
fused to  stop  inquiring.  Free  speech  might 
be  silenced;  it  often  was;  but  thought  went 
on  and  on. 

Popular  Education.  The  other  arousing  in- 
fluence directly  traceable  to  the  new  political 
situation  was  the  emphasis  placed  on  popu- 
lar education.  Practically  all  the  great  pa- 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  149 

triots  who  had  to  do  with  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  the  new  Spanish  American  govern- 
ments understood  the  fundamental  impor- 
tance, the  necessity  even,  of  educating  the 
people — all  the  people,  since  all  of  the  peo- 
ple are  citizens  and  sovereigns.  Now  this 
undertaking  is  in  Mexico  as  yet  only  an 
ideal,  a dream,  largely  unrealized.  Yet  the 
very  fact  that  such  a dream  has  been 
dreamed,  such  an  ideal  set  up,  has  made  a 
profound  stir.  The  thought  has  run  like  an 
electric  current  through  all  the  national 
fiber.  Unlettered  men  and  women  in  remote 
villages  and  ranches  have  thought  and  talked 
of  a time  when  there  shall  be  schools  every- 
where, for  everybody.  Their  sons,  or  their 
grandsons,  they  say,  will  see  this,  if  they 
themselves  do  not.  And  the  young  people 
growing  up  have  heard  the  talk  and  it  has 
awakened  in  them  a longing  for  schooling 
and  the  things  of  books.  So  it  has  happened 
that  wherever  enterprising  governors  or 
municipalities  have  pressed  the  work  of  es- 
tablishing public  schools  they  have  found  a 
constituency  ready  for  them.  And  wherever 
the  Protestant  Churches  have  found  it  pos- 
sible to  open  schools,  students  have  flocked 
to  them.  Even  the  Catholic  Church  has 
been  forced  by  this  demand  to  enter,  if  re- 


150 


Mexico  To-Day 


luctantly  and,  for  the  most  part,  rather  in- 
efficiently, upon  the  task  of  teaching,  and  its 
schools  too  are  crowded.  There  is,  in  short, 
universal  approval  of  the  idea  of  educating 
the  people.  Nobody  whose  opinion  is  worth 
while  now  opposes  universal  schooling.  It 
is  an  accepted  axiom  of  the  national  life.  It 
is  not  yet  in  practise,  but  the  limitation  is 
because  of  the  system  and  the  equipment, 
not  for  the  lack  of  a demand. 

Education  the  Mother  of  Ideas.  This  national 
turning  from  a long  period  of  contented 
ignorance  to  an  epoch  of  universal  devotion 
to  the  idea  of  education  is  a revolution  in 
the  mental  life  and  habits  of  the  people  that 
is  absolutely  fundamental.  It  is  an  awaken- 
ing, a real  new  birth.  It  is  the  fruitful 
mother  of  a whole  flock  of  stimulating  and 
arousing  ideas;  ideas  that  have  spread  like 
a contagion  throughout  the  people  during 
the  passing  of  the  century  just  closed. 

Economic  Awakening.  Next  in  importance 
to  this  awakening  of  the  national  pride  of 
freedom  and  the  desire  for  letters — intellec- 
tual and  moral  influences  strictly,  both  of 
them — is  the  mental  reaction  aroused  by  the 
new  industrialism.  Of  this  on  every  hand 
are  instances — tragic,  stirring,  melancholy, 
often  ludicrous.  The  tremendous  natural 


CHILDREN  OF  MEXICO 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  151 

resources  of  tlie  country  attracted  to  it 
abundance  of  capital  as  soon  as  the  govern- 
ment became  stable  enough  to  offer  protec- 
tion. Mines  were  opened,  railway  lines 
built,  telegraphs  established,  manufactories 
inaugurated.  It  was  foreign  capital  largely 
that  did  this,  for  most  of  the  money  of  Mex- 
ico was  in  the  hands  of  the  old,  wealthy  fam- 
ilies, of  people  who  are  usually  excessively 
timid.  They  distrusted  and  disliked  the 
new  order  of  things,  and  it  was  next  to  im- 
possible to  persuade  them  to  invest  their 
funds.  With  the  foreign  money  came  the 
foreigners  too,  with  their  novel  ideas,  unfa- 
miliar articles,  new  ways,  strange  speech, 
odd  modes  of  thought,  opening  up  every- 
where channels  of  communication  with  the 
big  modern  world  outside,  so  long,  for  Mex- 
ico, unknown  and  remote. 

Common  Carriers  of  Ideas.  The  railroads, 
for  example,  were  a huge  entering  wedge  for 
modern  ideas.  Conservative  influence  was 
everywhere  used  against  them.  The  people 
heard  strange  stories  about  the  locomotives 
— that  they  were  living  monsters,  infernal 
creatures,  full  of  fire  and  terror,  devouring 
wood  and  coal  and  perhaps  also  children, 
and  screaming  loudly  for  more.  Besides 
they  moved  so  rapidly  that  people  and  chick- 


152 


Mexico  To-Day 


ens  and  dogs  and  donkeys  were  continually 
getting  ground  up  under  their  terrible 
wheels.  In  1884  I rode  from  Mexico  City 
several  miles  to  a suburban  town  on  a car 
drawn  by  mules.  Noticing  that  the  track 
was  ballasted  and  laid  with  rather  heavy 
steel,  I asked  the  reason  of  such  unusual 
extravagance.  It  transpired  that  the  road 
had  had  at  first  steam  engines  for  drawing 
the  cars,  but  so  much  prejudice  had  been 
excited  by  the  smashing  up  of  chickens  and 
goats  and  by  the  breathless  and  unnecessary 
haste  with  which  the  trains  moved,  that  the 
company  was  forced  to  take  off  the  engines 
and  use  mules! 

Policy  of  President  Diaz.  The  government, 
however,  under  President  Diaz  especially, 
steadily  promoted  the  building  of  railways. 
They  were  needed  for  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  country  and  quite  as  much  for 
the  purposes  of  the  government  itself.  The 
more  difficult  and  unpromising  lines  were 
therefore  heavily  subsidized  out  of  govern- 
ment funds,  special  provision  being  made  at 
the  same  time  for  the  use  of  tracks  and 
trains  whenever  required  by  the  govern- 
ment. These  government  funds  but  in- 
creased the  tide  of  foreign  money  which 
poured  into  the  country.  Labor  was  in  de- 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  153 

mand  as  never  before.  The  peons  from  the 
haciendas  and  mines  were  astounded  at  the 
offer  of  wages  double  their  usual  pay  for 
labor  on  construction  and  maintenance. 
They  were  frequently  hauled  free  halfway 
across  the  country  simply  to  get  them  to 
where  they  were  needed.  Strange  modes  of 
work,  strange  tools,  vehicles,  and  imple- 
ments— dynamite,  steam  shovels,  pile-driv- 
ers, derrick  engines — the  bustle  and  stimu- 
lation of  construction  camps  where  the  ends 
of  the  earth  come  together — for  it  was  im- 
possible that  Irish  paddy,  Chinese  cook,  and 
darky  camp-follower  should  fail  to  appear 
on  a scene  like  that,  to  say  nothing  of  en- 
gineers and  their  helpers,  American,  Eng- 
lish, and  Scotch — opened  up  for  these  dusky 
toilers  from  remote  farms  and  villages  a 
whole  new  world.  Their  sons  later  got  to 
be  brakemen,  messenger  boys,  stokers,  tele- 
graph operators,  conductors.  They  them- 
selves developed  a mania  for  train  riding 
and  explored  the  length  and  breadth  of  their 
broad  country.  They  saw  newspapers, 
fruits,  and  candies  for  sale  that  had  come 
from  beyond  the  border,  froni  that  great 
land  to  the  north  that  had  always  before 
seemed  to  them  so  far  away.  They  heard 
their  beautiful  language  ruthlessly  butch- 


154 


Mexico  To-Day 


ered  by  big,  blonde  fellows,  who  though  they 
could  not  speak  Spanish  knew  a thousand 
things  and  could  work  marvelous  doings  and 
achieve  impossible  undertakings. 

Stimulus  of  New  Things.  So  profound  and 
widespread  an  industrial  change,  affecting 
the  most  intimate  affairs  of  the  humblest 
and  most  ignorant  of  the  people,  wrought 
mightily  to  arouse  the  mind  of  all.  The 
people  had  to  face  a thousand  new  ideas 
and  relations.  They  discussed  among  them- 
selves, they  meditated  at  length,  they  can- 
vassed from  every  possible  angle,  all  these 
unfamiliar  and  stunning  concepts.  Often 
they  were  forced  to  give  up  problems  as  in- 
soluble. Often  they  found  old  faiths  and 
fixed  beliefs  profoundly  shaken.  There  was 
a spirit  and  an  indomitable  determination 
about  these  foreigners  that  was  a source  of 
unmeasured  wonder  to  them.  Nothing  was 
admitted  to  be  impossible.  Always  a way 
could  be  found.  If  a tract  of  jungle  or  a wild 
mountain  gorge  was  considered  impenetra- 
ble, straightway  these  americanos  plowed 
through  it  a chasm  for  their  steel  rails  and 
shrieking  locomotives.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  that  ideas  in  the  moral  and  intel- 
lectual realm  that  long  had  been  accepted  as 
settled  began  to  lose  their  fixity  and  finality. 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  155 

The  resourcefulness  and  independence  of 
their  new  friends  were  for  the  Mexicans  con- 
tagious. That  spirit  of  self-reliance,  of  de- 
termined self-assertion  got  abroad  among 
them. 

Young  America  in  Mexico.  It  was  especially 
among  the  young  that  the  new  ideas  began 
to  ferment,  the  new  ways  to  find  acceptance. 
They  had  been  employed  perhaps  from 
childhood  by  these  foreign  railroad  people. 
They  had  picked  up  no  small  smattering  of 
English  from  employers  who  had  a way  of 
forcing  their  hands  to  speak  English  because 
they  themselves  could  not  or  would  not  learn 
Spanish.  They  were  imbued  with  the  desire 
to  be  up-to-date,  in  thought  and  ways.  All 
of  which  things  served  to  shake  them  free 
of  the  old  customs,  more  and  more.  For 
centuries  one  phrase  had  exercised  in  Mex- 
ico a most  potent  sway.  Against  all  innova- 
tions the  sufficient  objection  could  be  urged : 
No  es  costumbre, — It  is  not  the  custom. 
That  had  long  sufficed  as  a reason  for  not 
changing.  The  people  argued  that  if  a thing 
had  been  good  enough  for  their  fathers,  it 
was  good  enough  for  them.  Not  so  these 
youthful  imitators  of  things  foreign.  They 
thought  all  the  less  of  a custom  or  mode  of 
thought  if  it  represented  the  ways  of  their 


156 


Mexico  To-Day 


fathers,  for  their  fathers  and  ancestors 
stood  in  their  minds  for  industrial  ineffi- 
ciency, for  an  antiquated  and  no  longer  pos- 
sible subserviency  to  old  ways  merely  be- 
cause they  are  old.  The  railways  and  other 
similar  public  works  were,  in  short,  a school 
where  the  youth  of  Mexico  learned  modern 
ways  and  were  awakened  to  modern  concep- 
tions. 

Modern  Ways.  Quite  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  development  of  mining,  of  manufac- 
turing, and  even  of  farming  and  stock-rais- 
ing. The  entrance  of  foreign  capital,  the 
opening  up  of  free  communication  with 
other  countries,  and  the  immigration  of 
many  forceful  and  efficient  foreigners  have 
all  wrought  directly  upon  the  mental  habits 
of  the  Mexican  people.  In  mining  opera- 
tions there  have  been  a steady  advancement 
of  wages  and  an  equally  constant  improve- 
ment of  the  conditions  of  labor.  Modern 
factories  of  many  kinds  have  been  estab- 
lished in  different  sections  of  the  country, 
and  the  working  people  are  going  through 
various  stages  of  adjustment  to  their  new 
conditions,  including  the  organization  of 
labor  unions,  of  mutual  benefit  societies,  and 
like  agencies.  This  effort  at  cooperation 
and  organization  has  been  a most  wholesome 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  157 

influence.  Tlie  better  wages  paid  under  the 
stimulation  of  industrial  prosperity  have 
made  conditions  of  living  much  more  toler- 
able than  formerly.  The  people  have  had 
time  and  spirit  for  social  activities,  and  the 
desire  of  bettering  their  condition  has 
greatly  stimulated  the  organization  of  vari- 
ous forms  of  mutual  benefit  societies. 

Learning  to  Give  and  Take.  The  peculiar 
gain  in  all  this  lies  principally  in  the  fact 
that  the  Mexicans  have  naturally  few  apti- 
tudes for  such  organization.  Like  most 
people  newly  freed  from  hard  political  con- 
ditions they  are  prone  to  indulge  in  an 
exaggerated  individualism.  They  are  self- 
assertive,  sensitive  as  to  personal  honor, 
watchful  of  rights,  ambitious  of  leadership. 
The  various  social  organizations — labor 
unions,  mutual  insurance  societies,  debating 
clubs,  masonic  and  other  lodges, — have  had 
stormy  careers.  Not  seldom  they  have  been 
completely  wrecked  on  the  rock  of  disagree- 
ments among  the  members.  But  the  dis- 
cipline of  trying  to  adjust  themselves  to  the 
demands  of  such  social  experiments,  the  ef- 
fort at  self-command  and  at  mutual  surren- 
der for  a common  cause,  has  been  of  incal- 
culable value  to  the  people.  It  has  helped 
to  teach  them  that  if  a man  is  to  be  a sov- 


158 


Mexico  To-Day 


ereign  citizen  he  must  begin  with  mastery  of 
himself.  It  has  turned  the  eyes  of  many 
from  the  exaggerated  egoism  natural  to 
those  who  have  just  found  themselves  to  the 
duty  of  sacrifice  for  the  common  good.  It 
has  set  the  common  good  in  its  true  light  as 
more  important  than  the  welfare  or  gratifi- 
cation of  any  individual — as  essential  even 
to  the  welfare  of  each  as  well  as  of  all. 

Mexican  Characteristics.  These  influences 
have  had  some  deep-seated  national  traits  to 
which  to  appeal.  The  Mexican,  in  common 
with  most  men,  has  a stubborn  hatred  of  in- 
justice. He  is,  moreover,  naturally  of  a 
sympathetic  nature.  The  adjective  in  com- 
mon use  by  which  he  describes  an  agreeable, 
attractive  person  is  simpatico.  Though 
sometimes  he  is  seemingly  cruel,  it  is  only 
in  a childish,  thoughtless  way.  At  heart  he 
is  a tender  man,  generous  to  a fault,  prodigal 
of  time,  labor,  and  money  for  the  benefit  of 
his  needy  fellows.  In  no  country  in  the 
world  are  beggars  treated  with  more  consid- 
eration or  poor  relations  more  generously 
cared  for.  Besides  all  this,  the  long  course 
of  oppression,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  industrial, 
had  welded  the  people  into  a unified  mass, 
vast,  unwieldy,  dimly  conscious  of  itself, 
yet  essentially  one.  At  last  the  pressure 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  159 

which  had  held  it  together  was  withdrawn. 
The  centrifugal  forces  of  a new  individual- 
ism were  threatening  to  scatter  the  mass  in 
whirring  fragments.  If  its  unity  was  to  be 
preserved  it  must  now  be  by  inner  attrac- 
tion, by  a conscious  effort  at  union  and  co- 
operation. This  crucial  demand  upon  them 
for  the  study  and  comprehension  of  the 
essentials  of  community  action  was  only 
dimly  and  vaguely  felt  by  many,  but  it  fur- 
nished a background  of  courage  and  of  hope 
amid  the  many  humiliating  failures  at  co- 
operative organization  through  which  the 
people  had  to  pass. 

Groping  for  a Social  Standard.  It  served  also, 
and  this  is  especially  to  our  purpose,  as  a 
potent  and  inexhaustible  stimulant  to  the  in- 
tellectual life  of  the  people.  Like  the  set- 
ting up  of  the  standard  of  political  liberty, 
dependent  on  the  eternal  vigilance  of  those 
who  would  be  free,  it  aroused  men  to  think 
who  were  not  used  to  think,  for  whom  it  is 
hard  to  think — an  unaccustomed  effort  to 
which  they  adjust  themselves  with  extreme 
difficulty.  The  methods  and  detail  of  or- 
ganization, the  rules  of  procedure,  estab- 
lished in  other  lands  on  the  basis  of  long  ex- 
perience, the  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
joint  action  and  to  be  forfeited  by  the  want 


160 


Mexico  To-Day 


of  it,  all  these  became  the  subject  of  pro- 
found and  persistent  study.  It  made  men 
read,  it  furnished  stock  for  endless  conver- 
sation and  argument,  it  forced  them  into 
contact  with  the  world,  hitherto  so  remote 
and  unknown,  and  like  the  influence  of  the 
railroads,  became  really  a course  of  study, 
a college,  a university  for  developing  the 
minds  of  all  the  people. 

A National  Press.  Of  other  elements  in  the 
national  awakening  we  have  yet  to  mention 
one  which  was  among  the  most  potent,  and 
which,  though  a little  hard  to  isolate  from 
other  related  influences,  merits  separate  and 
special  discussion,  and  that  is  the  develop- 
ment of  a national  press.  So  general  was 
illiteracy  throughout  the  country  after  inde- 
pendence was  achieved  that  this  develop- 
ment was  a slow  one.  Liberty  of  the  press 
was  proclaimed  from  the  beginning.  But  for 
a long  time  it  was  far  from  being  realized. 
Under  Spanish  rule  there  was,  of  course,  no 
pretense  of  such  a thing.  The  Spanish  gov- 
ernment, like  the  Catholic  Church,  exercised 
an  open  and  severe  censorship.  People  were 
allowed  to  print  and  to  read  only  what  their 
mentors  thought  would  be  good  for  them. 
After  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  at 
self-government  it  was  soon  found  that  gen- 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  161 

erals  and  Presidents  were  when  in  power 
uncommonly  sensitive  to  public  criticism. 
A judicious  critic  of  Latin  America  has  said 
that  one  of  the  failings  of  the  people  of  these 
nations  is  that  they  so  often  take  words  for 
deeds.  Something  of  that  has  from  the  be- 
ginning been  witnessed  in  the  attitude  of 
public  men  to  the  press.  In  Mexico  it  has 
been  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception  that 
men  in  authority  have  suppressed  the  peri- 
odicals which  criticized  them  or  their  poli- 
cies, and  have  tolerated  only  those  that 
would  deal  out  fulsome  praise. 

Steady  Gains.  Nevertheless  the  gradual  ex- 
tension of  the  schools,  of  one  kind  or  an- 
other, the  steady  rise  of  the  people  in  the 
scale  of  literacy,  working  together  with  the 
great  democratic  principle  of  a free  press, 
have  stimulated  the  growth  and  independ- 
ence of  the  newspapers.  In  recent  years 
they  have  greatly  multiplied.  In  one  form 
or  another,  as  trade  journals,  literary  publi- 
cations, political  organs,  or  mere  newspa- 
pers, they  have  now  pretty  well  extended 
themselves  over  the  whole  nation.  They  go 
into  village  and  hamlet,  as  well  as  into  city 
and  town,  and  they  are  read  till  they  are 
worn  out.  The  people  who  cannot  read — 
and  the  proportion  of  these,  except  in  remote 


162 


Mexico  To-Day 


Indian  settlements,  is  rapidly  diminishing — 
have  the  papers  read  aloud  to  them.  White 
paper  is  expensive  in  Mexico  as  are  other  es- 
sentials of  the  printer’s  art,  and  the  periodi- 
cals are  apt  to  be  cheap  looking  and  shabby. 
But  they  are  having  a tremendous  influence. 
The  ideas  and  the  news  which  they  dissemi- 
nate and  the  desire  for  knowledge  and  learn- 
ing which  they  awaken  are  among  the  out- 
standing elements  in  the  general  intellectual 
awakening  concerning  which  our  study  is 
now  occupied.  As  in  other  and  more  favored 
lands,  the  “ free  press  ” is  by  no  means 
always  free.  Sinister  influences  of  various 
kinds  secure  control  of  these  organs  of 
“ public  opinion.”  Newspapers,  like  men, 
may  be  victims  of  many  other  forms  of  ser- 
vitude besides  being  subservient  to  a tyran- 
nical government.  Even  the  news  columns 
are  invaded,  and  ends  of  a secret  and  selfish 
character  are  sought  in  the  very  manner  of 
placing  the  news  of  the  world  before  the 
reading  public.  But  while  all  these  influ- 
ences are  more  easily  exercised  among  an 
inexperienced  and  simple  class  of  readers 
than  among  those  who  are  prepared  by  long 
training  to  understand  the  drift  and  mean- 
ing of  things,  it  is  still  better  for  people  to 
read  than  not  to  read.  And  whether  for  bet- 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  163 

ter  or  for  worse,  the  die  is  cast.  The  peri- 
odicals of  Mexico  are  rapidly  making  a read- 
ing people  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  coun- 
try. This  profound  change  in  the  mental 
atmosphere  in  which  they  move  is  one  which 
must  be  taken  account  of  in  summing  up  the 
elements  of  the  modern  intellectual  move- 
ment. 

Cosmopolitan  Consciousness.  Closely  akin  to 
the  newspapers  and  their  influence,  is  the 
arousing  quality  of  contact  with  the  world 
through  modern  methods  of  travel  and 
intercommunication.  The  train  service,  the 
telegraph  and  cable,  the  telephone  and 
post-office  are  all  carriers  of  ideas.  Bar- 
riers of  nationality  and  of  language  offer 
difficulties,  but  they  are  temporary  and 
far  from  invincible.  The  train  that  carries 
only  Texans  in  Texas  may  roll  across  tlie 
border  to  be  loaded  with  Spanish-speaking 
Mexicans.  The  signs  of  the  Morse  alphabet 
can  be  made  to  spell  out  words  in  Chinese 
or  Aztec,  and  the  telephone  carries  a con- 
versation in  Spanish  quite  as  cheerfully  and 
as  clearly  as  one  in  English.  The  fact  that 
people  all  over  the  world  are  availing  them- 
selves of  modern  modes  of  rapid  and  distant 
travel  and  of  modern  means  of  conveying 
ideas  where  it  is  not  desired  to  convey 


164 


Mexico  To-Day 


bodies,  is  bringing  the  whole  world  to  a com- 
munity of  thought.  It  is  a most  stirring 
thing,  too,  to  feel  that  you  are  one  with  the 
great  and  widespread  human  race,  that  you 
are  thinking  the  same  thoughts  with  your 
brother  over  seas  or  at  the  antipodes. 

Awakening  to  World-wide  Influences.  It  would 
be  an  interesting  study,  were  there  space 
for  it,  to  trace  the  numerous  ways  in  which 
this  sense  of  mental  touch  with  the  world 
silently  affects  the  thinking  of  a people. 
There  are  standards  of  opinion  and  judg- 
ment embodied  in  the  very  phrases  which  be- 
come current  and  which  insensibly  press  in 
upon  the  fixed  ideas  of  non-progressive  and 
isolated  people.  We  have  in  Spain  to-day 
the  spectacle  of  a people  held  fast  in  the 
chains  of  authority  and  restrained  at  every 
point  from  responding  to  the  modern  cur- 
rents of  thought  which  from  every  quarter 
blow  upon  it.  Yet  so  potent  are  these  silent 
forces  of  the  spirit  of  the  times  that  even 
the  people  of  Spain,  illiterate  and  apparently 
helpless  as  they  are,  seem  about  to  break 
over  the  barriers  set  up  by  both  Church  and 
state,  and  assert  their  right  to  be  a part  of 
the  modern,  progressive  world. 

Rapid  Transformation.  Under  the  protection 
of  the  excellent  laws  and  policing,  people  from 


STUDYING  ENGLISH  IN  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  CHIHUAHUA 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  165 

other  countries  traveled  all  over  Mexico  and 
many  of  them  settled  down  to  business  or 
professional  pursuits. 

Spread  of  the  English  Language.  Within 
twenty  years  the  English  language  from  be- 
ing a novelty  when  heard  on  the  streets  came 
to  be  a commonplace  almost  everywhere.  I 
was  once  (about  1892)  detained  by  a storm 
of  rain  in  an  Indian  village  on  Lake  Patz- 
’ cuaro.  The  railroad  had  but  lately  pene- 
trated that  region  and  the  life  of  the  Tarasco 
Indians  was,  as  it  still  is,  exceedingly  primi- 
tive. The  family  with  whom  I found  lodg- 
ing and  a warm  welcome  had  but  a dirt 
floor  hut,  with  a very  small  and  low 
“ lean-to  ” as  kitchen  and  dining-room.  I 
could  only  get  into  this  room  in  a sitting 
posture,  and  the  one  part  of  the  main  room 
where  I could  stand  upright  was  in  the  hole 
left  for  the  ladder  which  led  to  the  “ loft,” 
with  my  head  and  shoulders  in  the  second 
story!  The  warmth  of  the  kitchen  fire  was 
shared  by  a cat  and- dog.  The  cat  caused 
the  family  great  merriment  by  sitting  on  a 
warm  stone  till  she  fell  asleep  and  then  nod- 
ding till  she  rolled  in  the  hot  ashes.  This 
happened  several  times,  causing  each  time 
shouts  of  laughter.  The  dog  was  a great 
favorite  and  made  himself  much  at  home. 


166 


Mexico  To-Day 


My  hosts  spoke  Spanish  with  considerable 
difficulty,  talking  always  among  themselves 
their  native  Tarasco.  This  is  a beautiful 
language,  by  the  way,  in  sound  considerably 
resembling  English.  They  frequently  ad- 
dressed the  dog  by  a name  which  I took  to  be 
Indian,  as  I was  sure  it  was  not  Spanish.  Fi- 
nally I said,  “ What  is  the  name  you  give  the 
dog?  ” They  laughed  and  looked  surprised. 
“ Popepy,  popepy,”  they  said,  “ English, 
you  know;  American  name:  popepy.  Isn’t 
that  right?  ” I then  discovered  that  they 
were  calling  him  “ puppy,”  a word  which 
they  had  learned  from  a young  Mexican 
preacher  who  had  visited  them  the  year  be- 
fore and  who  had  a smattering  of  English. 
This  discovery  of  my  native  tongue  in  that 
strange  out-of-the-way  setting  was  as  sur- 
prising to  me  as  was  the  fact  that  they 
dragged  out  for  me  a cheap  American  can- 
vas cot  on  which  to  sleep.  It  also  had  been 
left  by  the  young  preacher,  and  frightfully 
cold  it  proved,  that  raw,  rainy  night. 

Educational  Statistics  Impossible.  The  lack  of 
properly  kept  records  makes  it  difficult  to 
trace  the  educational  development  of  Mex- 
ico. During  the  administration  of  Presi- 
dent Diaz  much  attention  was  given  to  public 
schools.  The  Federal  District  and  the  terri- 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  167 

tories  under  federal  control  had  excellent 
systems  provided  for  them  by  congress.  A 
number  of  the  states  followed  with  plans  for 
rural  schools  and  for  the  supervision  of 
those  established  by  municipalities,  with 
compulsory  laws,  state  normal  schools,  and 
other  advanced  features.  The  plans  adopted 
were  modern  and  admirable,  but  the  course 
of  development  was  everywhere  slow. 
There  was  no  adequate  supply  of  teachers 
and  supervisors.  The  influence  of  the 
Church  was  thrown  against  the  whole  insti- 
tution, including,  of  course,  the  state  normal 
schools.  The  people  were  not  yet  really 
hungry  for  enlightenment,  and  so  were 
easily  discouraged.  The  schools  themselves 
were  usually  rather  crude  affairs.  The  cus- 
tom of  conning  lessons  aloud  was  general. 
A busy  primary  school  could  easily  be  heard 
a block  away,  and  the  strident  yells  of  en- 
thusiastic little  Indians  were  enough  to 
make  tatters  of  any  teacher’s  nerves. 

School  Situation  To-day.  The  political  dis- 
turbances of  the  last  two  years  have  pret- 
ty effectually  wrecked  the  public  school 
work.  The  Federal  Minister  of  Education 
recently  issued  an  estimate  that  probably 
seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  Mexican  people 
are  still  illiterate.  This  is  undoubtedly  an 


168 


Mexico  To-Day 


exaggeration,  indulged  in,  seemingly,  for 
political  effect.  Going  over  the  matter  care- 
fully with  a Mexican  friend,  a gentleman 
who  was  for  eleven  years  president  of  the 
state  normal  school  and  superintendent  of 
primary  education  for  the  state  of  Coahuila, 
I have  reached  the  conclusion  that  fifty  per 
cent,  of  illiterates  is  as  high  a rate  as  need 
be  charged  against  the  Mexican  people  of 
to-day.  A hundred  years  ago  it  was  about 
ninety  per  cent. 

Demand  for  letters.  But  while  the  public 
school  work  has  of  late  been  interrupted,  the 
demand  for  schooling  has  been  greatly  in- 
tensified. The  recent  political  disturbances 
have  been  distinctively  popular  movements 
— excepting,  of  course,  the  coup  of  Diaz  and 
Huerta  against  Madero.  They  have  pro- 
foundly stirred  popular  thought.  They  put 
a premium  on  reading  and  intelligence.  One 
result  is  that  mission  schools  are  crowded  as 
never  before.  Newspapers  are  springing 
up  everywhere.  They  are  eagerly  taken 
and  read,  and  the  people  who  cannot  read 
bewail  it  and  wish  to  send  their  children  to 
school. 

Everybody  is  Thinking  Now.  The  arousing 
effect  of  these  recent  political  events  has 
been,  indeed,  almost  equal  to  that  exercised 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  169 

by  the  great  revolution  of  a hundred  years 
ago.  In  a general  way  the  country  is  much 
worse  off  for  these  revolutions.  Farming 
and  commerce  are  paralyzed  and  fighting  and 
pillage  have  caused  immense  damage.  I met 
a Mexican  laborer  on  the  street  in  El  Paso, 
Texas,  while  the  fighting  in  Mexico  City  was 
in  progress  last  February.  He  had  a small 
Spanish  newspaper  in  his  hand,  and  I began 
a conversation  by  asking  what  was  the  news. 
The  paper  contained  nothing  new,  but  we 
proceeded  to  exchange  items.  I was  im- 
pressed that  the  feeling  uppermost  in  his 
mind  was  one  of  shame  that  his  countrymen 
should  fall  out  and  fight  in  the  heart  of  the 
capital.  “ That'  is  the  one  beautiful  city 
that  we  Mexicans  have,”  he  mourned,  “ and 
now  they  are  ruining  it  with  their  cannon.” 
I tried  to  draw  him  out  as  to  his  political 
preferences,  but  he  was  too  cautious.  Yet  I 
did  not  doubt  he  had  opinions  and  only  con- 
cealed them  because  I was  a stranger  to  him. 

A New  Public  Opinion.  That  is  the  one  dis- 
tinct gain  that  the  visitor  to  Mexico  to-day 
will  note.  There  is  at  last  beginning  to  be 
such  a thing  there  as  public  opinion.  Ambi- 
tious leaders  are  finding  that  the  people  can 
no  longer  be  driven  like  sheep.  General 
Reyes  tried  to  start  a revolution  against 


170 


Mexico  To-Day 


Madero,  but  nobody  would  rally  to  him.  He 
was  a very  popular  man,  too.  Madero  tried 
to  raise  an  army,  but  the  people  would  not 
enlist.  Huerta  has  laid  violent  hands  on  the 
presidency,  but  the  people  disapprove  of 
him  as  a usurper,  a man  whose  hands  are 
stained  with  blood.  They  will  not  enlist  in 
his  army  at  double  wages  even.  The  sleep- 
ing giant  is  awakening.  The  long  sub- 
merged and  disregarded  common  people 
of  Mexico  are  coming  to  a consciousness  of 
themselves.  They  are  longing  for  light  and 
lieli?.  Never  before  was  the  way  so  wide 
open  for  the  Christian  teacher. 

Are  We  Good  Neighbors?  Of  course  in  a 
national  transition  of  this  sort  there  are 
many  grotesque  and  even  absurd  contrasts. 
Often  the  people  go  so  fast  that  there  is  a 
reaction.  We  Americans  have  not  always 
been  happy  in  our  representatives  in  Mex- 
ico. All  sorts  of  adventurers  have  crossed 
the  Eio  Grande,  some  for  their  own  and 
their  country’s  good.  Many  who  were  not 
mere  adventurers  have  been  harsh  and  un- 
sympathetic in  their  attitude  toward  the 
Mexicans.  Thus,  though  we  are  their  near- 
est neighbors,  though  we  have  more  that 
they  wish  and  need  than  any  other  people,  of 
both  institutions  and  commerce,  though  we 


The  Intellectual  Awakening  171 

have  successfully  established  the  kind  of 
government  that  they  are  striving  for, 
though  our  political  constitution  is  the  model 
for  theirs,  though,  in  short,  we  are  their 
natural  neighbors  and  helpers  and  big 
brothers,  we  have  played  the  part  but  poorly 
and  have  no  very  strong  hold  on  their  re- 
gard. The  memory  of  the  unfortunate  war 
of  1845  rankles  yet  in  the  thought  of  many. 
Our  rough  ways  and  bad  manners  do  not  fit 
us  for  the  work  of  conciliation.  Many  of 
our  people,  in  personal  contact  with  the 
Mexicans,  have  been  and  are  rude  and  un- 
feeling. Our  tremendous  wealth  has  put 
many  of  the  great  and  productive  enter- 
prises throughout  Mexico  under  American 
control.  That  is  not  a pleasant  thing  for 
Mexicans  to  contemplate.  So  a spasm  of 
anti-Americanism  not  unfrequently  passes 
over  the  country.  We  are  not,  as  we  ought 
to  be,  the  most  popular  people  with  them. 
Fortunately  the  two  governments,  especially 
since  we  helped  Mexico  in  her  great  struggle 
with  France  and  Maximilian,  have  been  on 
the  best  of  terms  with  each  other.  Not  even 
sharp  friction  along  the  border  from  time  to 
time,  or  the  fomenting  of  Mexican  revolu- 
tions on  American  soil,  has  availed  to  dis- 
turb this  peaceful  relationship.  This  state 


172 


Mexico  To-Day 


of  things  should  by  all  means  be  perpetu- 
ated. Public  sentiment  in  both  nations 
ought  to  demand  it.  We  should  not  inter- 
vene by  sending  soldiers  to  Mexico.  That 
would  be  terrible,  disastrous.  But  out  of 
our  strength  and  abundance  we  ought  to 
send  to  our  needy  neighbor  teachers,  evan- 
gelists, friends.  These  will  be  made  wel- 
come. They  will  win  for  us  the  eternal 
gratitude  and  good-will  of  an  entire  nation. 


THE  PROTESTANT  MOVEMENT 


There  is  another,  if  possible  sadder,  fact.  The  Indians, 
or  more  than  half  the  population,  though  counted  as  mem- 
bers of  the  Roman  communion,  never  have  had  an  oppoi>' 
tunity  to  know  what  Christianity  is.  They  have  been  left 
without  education,  without  Bibles,  and  have  been  permitted 
to  mingle  their  ancient  rites  and  superstitions  with  some 
of  the  outward  forms  of  Christianity.  Indians  in  feather 
plumage  dancing  at  the  sacred  shrine  of  Guadalupe;  niches, 
side  by  side,  in  villages  and  roadways,  to  the  Virgin  of 
Guadalupe  and  to  the  Aztec  war  god,  Huitzilopoclitli,  are 
some  current  evidences  of  the  criminal  negligence  of  the 
Roman  priesthood,  a negligence  that  has  covered  three  cen- 
turies. How  shall  Protestant  Christians  do  their  part 
toward  the  salvation  of  these  millions? — John  TF.  Butler. 

Why  play  at  missions  with  such  a magnificent  opportu- 
nity as  presents  itself  on  this  field?  A compact  city  with  a 
population  larger  than  was  reported  for  at  least  two  of 
the  states  of  our  great  union  at  the  last  census,  and  nearly 
two  and  one-half  times  as  great  as  the  population  of  one 
of  them.  In  view  of  the  vast  resources  which  God  has 
placed  in  the  hands  of  North  American  Christians  does  not 
this  condition  in  a great  North  American  city  seem  pitiable 
in  the  extreme?  We  certainly  have  neglected  some  vast 
opportunities  on  our  own  continent.  Who  could  ask  for  a 
better  opportunity  of  investing  a few  thousand  dollars 
where  his  investment  would  bring  quick  returns  in  evan- 
gelizing a great  city? — L.  E.  Troyer. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  PROTESTANT  MOVEMENT 

Breaking  away  from  Catholicism.  The  French 
intervention  and  the  brief  and  fatal  empire 
of  Maximilian  of  Austria  were  in  reality  a 
sort  of  last,  desperate  stand  on  the  part  of 
the  Church  party  in  Mexico.  After  an  alli- 
ance with  the  civil  government  of  the  coun- 
try which  had  continued  for  more  than  three 
hundred  years,  enabling  them  during  all  that 
time  to  proscribe  all  religious  teaching  ex- 
cept their  own,  Church  leaders  could  ill  brook 
the  liberal  constitution  of  1857  and  the  ac- 
companying “ Laws  of  Reform.”  These 
laws  were  aimed  directly  at  the  special  privi- 
leges of  the  Roman  Church,  such  as  the  right 
of  ecclesiastics  when  accused  of  crime  to  trial 
in  a special  court  of  their  own  and  Church 
control  of  cemeteries  and  marriage  as  well 
as  at  the  immense  ecclesiastical  realty  hold- 
ings and  the  idle  non-producing  groups  of  re- 
ligious devotees.  The  new  property  regula- 
tions were  similar  to  the  mortmain  laws  long 
ago  enforced  in  England  and  more  recently 
175 


176 


Mexico  To-Day 


in  France.  They  forbade  the  holding  of  real 
estate  by  a Church  except  for  immediate  use 
in  connection  with  public  worship.  It  was 
this  drastic  provision,  coupled  as  it  was  with 
the  sequestration  of  all  actual  holdings  in 
violation  of  it,  which  drove  the  Church  party 
in  Mexico,  after  failing  in  a bloody  war,  to 
the  desperate  measure  of  seeking  help  in  Eu- 
rope, resulting  in  the  French  intervention. 

Intellectual  Emancipation.  All  this  took  place 
during  the  dark  years  of  the  American  Civil 
War,  when  the  government  at  Washington 
was  too  deeply  engrossed  with  domestic  trou- 
bles to  take  note  of  the  violation  of  the  Mon- 
roe doctrine.  But  the  ragged  patriots  of 
Mexico  gradually  drove  back  the  trained 
French  troops  under  Bazaine  and  other  fa- 
mous leaders,  as  they  had  just  previously 
discomfited  the  armies  of  the  conservative 
party  in  Mexico.  By  1867,  as  we  have  seen, 
Maximilian  was  defeated  and  slain,  the 
French  troops  had  been  withdrawn — partly 
under  pressure  from  Washington,  though  the 
king  of  France  was  glad  of  a pretext — and 
the  Republic  was  triumphant  in  the  land  of 
the  Aztecs.  Already  during  the  years  of  bit- 
ter struggle,  when  the  principles  underlying 
republican  institutions  were  being  subjected 
to  minute  study  and  the  Reform  Laws  had 


The  Peotestant  Movement  177 

set  everybody  to  examining  anew  the  whole 
subject  of  religion,  many  of  the  thoughtful 
opponents  of  a political  and  decadent  Church 
had  taken  occasion  to  insist  that  they  were  not 
hostile  to  true  Christianity.  The  York  Rite 
of  masonry,  with  its  exaltation  of  the  Bible, 
had  been  introduced  in  spite  of  savage  per- 
secution and  in  the  face  of  a horrified  public 
sentiment.  Many  public  men  openly  advo- 
cated the  introduction  of  Protestantism  as  an 
aid  in  the  struggle  against  religious  condi- 
tions which  had  become  intolerable.  Presi- 
dent Juarez  himself  is  quoted  on  excellent 
authority  as  saying  that  “ upon  the  develop- 
ment of  Protestantism  largely  depends  the 
future  happiness  of  our  country.” 

Buildings  Available.  During  the  administra- 
tion of  Juarez,  immediately  following  the 
intervention,  the  federal  government  found 
itself  in  possession  of  many  buildings  taken 
from  the  Catholics.  These  were  not  easily 
sold,  as  anathemas  had  been  launched  against 
any  who  should  traffic  in  what  had  been  con- 
secrated property.  The  long  interdict 
against  Protestant  societies  having  been  at 
last  raised,  work  was  soon  begun  by  several 
evangelical  Churches.  To  one  of  these,  early 
on  the  ground,  a grant  was  made  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  a valuable  chapel  in  the  heart  of 


178 


Mexico  To-Day 


Mexico  City,  and  it  was  enabled  also  to  pur- 
chase on  easy  terms  part  of  what  had  been 
the  monastery  of  San  Francisco.  Other  so- 
cieties obtained  by  purchase  from  the  federal 
authorities  valuable  locations  there  and  in 
many  other  cities  throughout  the  country. 

Religious  Clubs.  A singular  phenomenon  of 
those  troubled  years,  hinting  of  the  influence 
exerted  by  that  divine  Spirit  which  long  ago 
brooded  over  earth’s  chaos,  was  the  forma- 
tion of  numerous  quasi-religious  voluntary 
associations — groups  of  men  for  study,  dis- 
cussion, and  mutual  benefit.  These  sprang 
up  all  over  the  country.  Later,  several  of 
them  were  merged  into  Christian  congrega- 
tions. One  such  group  in  Mexico  City  had 
as  active  leader  a soldier  named  Sosthenes 
Juarez,  a relative  of  the  great  President. 
He  had  by  accident  come  into  possession  of  a 
French  Bible  brought  over  by  one  of  the 
chaplains  of  the  army  of  intervention — so 
strangely  does  God  make  the  wrath  of  man 
to  praise  him.  This  Bible  was  made  the 
nucleus  of  a voluntary  association  of  men 
whose  religious  instincts  were  feeling  after 
something  that  might  satisfy  them.  So  pow- 
erfully did  the  divine  Word  do  its  work  in 
their  minds  and  hearts  that  through  the  in- 
fluence of  that  one  Bible  in  a language  which 


The  Protestant  Movement  179 

only  a few  of  them  understood,  nearly  all  of 
them  became  confessed  Christians.  Mr. 
Juarez,  who  was  a man  of  culture  and  force, 
able  to  read  the  Bible  in  French  and  trans- 
late it  for  the  benefit  of  his  associates,  later 
became  a minister  of  the  gospel,  and  after 
more  than  twenty  years  of  efficient  service  in 
that  calling  died  at  his  post  as  a soldier  of 
the  cross.  The  old  French  Bible  and  the 
manuscript  regulations  of  this  society,  signed 
by  all  the  members,  are  still  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  the  Board  under  which  Mr.  Juarez 
labored. 

Influence  of  the  Bible.  This  incident  illus- 
trates anew  how  religious  awakenings  root 
themselves  in  the  Bible.  That  Book  is  the  ally 
of  all  intellectual  and  social  struggles  after 
better  things.  It  arouses  the  minds  of  those 
who  touch  it  for  the  first  time  as  nothing 
else  will,  and  also  profoundly  stirs  the 
moral  conscience.  And  it  does  not  stop  with 
awakening  new  desires  and  aspirations;  it 
guides  as  well  as  awakens.  It  makes  men 
demand  enlightenment.  It  is  the  mother  of 
the  public  school.  It  is  the  enemy  of  dark- 
ness. It  inspires  courage.  It  drives  the  hu- 
man mind  to  test  and  to  investigate.  By 
thrusting  final  responsibility  on  the  individ- 
ual brain  and  heart,  it  is  in  particular  the 


180 


Mexico  To-Day 


enemy  of  a religion  which  habitually  dele- 
gates authority  on  the  one  hand  and  demands 
submission  on  the  other.  The  modern  evan- 
gelical movement  in  Mexico  rests  on  Bible 
distribution.  Almost  immediately  after  the 
republican  government  had  lifted  the  em- 
bargo of  centuries  on  Scripture  selling,  both 
the  American  Bible  Society  and  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  had  agents  in 
Mexico.  The  American  Society  had  already 
for  several  years  been  feeling  its  way  into 
the  interior  near  the  northern  border  where 
even  during  the  long  war  the  patriot  influence 
was  strong  enough  to  protect  its  workers. 
One  of  these  deserves  special  mention.  Miss 
Melinda  Rankin,  a missionary  on  the  border 
of  Texas  among  the  Mexicans,  later  made  her 
way  into  the  interior  of  Mexico,  as  far  as 
Monterey,  and  seeing  what  was  the  principal 
need  of  the  people,  put  herself  into  touch  with 
the  American  Bible  Society  and  gave  about  all 
her  time  to  Bible  distribution.  This  was  in  the 
sixties,  prior  to  and  during  the  French  inter- 
vention, and  was,  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
the  beginning  of  Protestant  mission  work  in 
Mexico. 

Americans  in  Mexico.  The  attention  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States  was  strongly 
drawn  to  Mexico  immediately  after  the 


Thb  Protestant  Movement  181 

American  Civil  War.  A considerable  group 
of  soldiers  of  fortune  from  the  United  States, 
both  Northern  and  Southern,  allied  them- 
selves with  the  Juarez  government  and  took 
part  in  the  closing  months  of  the  war  against 
Maximilian.  Another  group,  smaller  but 
more  prominent  as  to  its  personnel,  of  South- 
ern soldiers  and  sympathizers,  left  the  United 
States  and  settled  in  Mexico  after  the  defeat 
of  General  Lee’s  armies.  The  long  struggle 
of  the  Juarez  government  against  a foreign 
invader  and  its  final  success,  added  to  the 
popular  interest  in  Mexican  affairs.  The 
news  of  the  establishment  of  a republican 
government  there,  with  religious  liberty,  was 
welcomed  everywhere.  But  it  was  accom- 
panied by  reports  of  deplorable  religious 
and  educational  conditions.  The  American 
Churches,  therefore,  made  haste  to  enter  this 
inviting  field.  Both  the  government  and  the 
people  were  ready  to  welcome  evangelical 
Christianity.  And  from  that  day  to  this  no 
other  attitude  has  been  shown  by  them.  The 
few  instances  of  local  persecution  have  in- 
variably been  disturbances  stirred  up  by  the 
priests  and  other  intolerant  partizans  of  the 
Boman  Catholic  Church. 

Beginning  of  the  Missionary  Movement.  Ameri- 
can missions  began  to  be  rapidly  opened  up 


182 


Mexico  To-Day 


in  the  early  seventies.  Some  Baptist  groups 
had  grown  up  in  the  northern  districts  of 
Mexico  in  the  sixties,  related  loosely  to  the 
work  of  Miss  Rankin.  Toward  the  end  of 
that  same  decade  a mission  was  organized  in 
Mexico  City,  first  on  independent  lines. 
Later  it  was  taken  over  by  the  mission  board 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  This 
work  began  under  peculiarly  favorable  aus- 
pices. Mr.  H.  C.  Riley,  a missionary  from 
South  America,  who  already  understood 
Spanish,  was  at  the  head  of  it.  The  govern- 
ment of  President  Juarez  favored  the  work 
in  the  matter  of  adequate  housing,  and  a 
group  of  friends  of  Mr.  Riley  in  the  United 
States  contributed  largely  with  funds.  The 
mission  flourished  for  a decade  or  more,  do- 
ing an  especially  noteworthy  work  in  the 
training  of  a group  of  young  Mexican  min- 
isters. Several  of  these  young  men  became 
later,  and  some  of  them  yet  remain,  potent 
factors  in  the  progress  of  Christianity  in 
Mexico. 

Some  Other  Beginnings.  The  Society  of 
Friends  organized  mission  work  in  the  ex- 
treme northeastern  corner  of  the  republic 
(1871),  following  closely  upon  the  work  of 
the  Baptists  (North)  in  the  same  frontiers. 
Then  followed  the  Presbyterian  Church 


The  Protestant  Movement  183 

(1872),  the  Congregational  (1872),  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  (1873),  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South  (1873),  the  Presby- 
terian (South)  (1874),  the  Associated  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  (1878),  and  the  South- 
ern Baptist  (1880).  Two  or  three  other  de- 
nominations have  since  entered  the  field,  and 
in  1897  an  Independent  Mexican  Church  was 
organized.  It  is  principally  congregational  in 
its  form  of  government.  Recent  statistics 
show  a total  of  about  thirty  thousand  com- 
municants in  these  several  branches  of  Prot- 
estantism. 

Th'e  People  Reached.  These  members  have 
been  gathered  largely  from  among  the  poor 
and  uneducated  classes.  Mexico  has  always 
heretofore  lacked  a middle  class.  The  oppor- 
tunities of  the  new  industrial  development 
and  the  influence  of  the  schools — public 
schools  and  mission  schools  alike — have 
tended  strongly  in  recent  years  to  build  up 
such  a class,  but  it  remains  true  even  yet  that 
the  people  of  Mexico  are  divided  into  two 
groups  only,  the  rich  and  the  poor.  Fortu- 
nately the  poor  are  often  quite  as  promising 
material  for  citizenship,  whether  in  Church 
or  state,  as  are  the  rich.  The  only  thing 
they  have  lacked  has  been  opportunity.  In 
Mexico,  however,  the  days  of  recent  Protes- 


184 


Mexico  To-Day 


taut  work  have  had  the  same  mark  of  genu- 
ineness that  was  offered  to  strengthen  the 
faith  of  John  the  Baptist  in  prison — “ The 
poor  have  the  gospel  preached  unto  them.” 
And  they  have  received  it  gladly,  as  they  did 
in  the  days  of  Christ.  Having  nothing  to  lose 
they  have  been  quick  to  see  that  there  was 
much  for  them  to  gain. 

Difficulties  of  Organization.  But  converts  from 
among  the  poorer  class  of  Mexico  have  been 
more  easily  obtained  than  organized.  These 
are  people  who  have  never  had  part  in  inde- 
pendent, cooperative  efforts.  They  are  with- 
out experience  in  such  things,  and  without 
financial  resources  as  well.  The  crucial  point 
of  mission  work  in  that  country  has  thus 
proved  to  be,  not  the  securing  of  adherents — 
that  is  comparatively  easy — but  the  forming 
of  a native,  self-sustaining,  and  self-propagat- 
ing Church.  The  process  goes  on  very  slowly 
indeed.  It  seems  that  anything  like  perfec- 
tion in  this  direction  must  await  either  the 
conversion  of  a considerable  number  of  well- 
to-do  people  or  the  gradual  building  up  of  a 
middle  class. 

The  Rich  Hard  to  Reach.  Fortunately  both  of 
these  are  far  from  forlorn  hopes.  Persons 
having  place  among  the  comfortable  element 
in  society — the  “ accommodated,”  to  use  a 


The  Protestant  Movement  185 

Spanish  phrase — have  heretofore  been  hin- 
dered in  many  ways  from  becoming  interested 
in  the  gospel.  In  the  first  place,  social  lines  are 
very  sharply  drawn,  and  to  expect  such  peo- 
ple to  attend  public  worship  in  a cheap  chapel 
or  hired  house,  in  company  with  a group  of 
day  laborers,  would  not  be  greatly  different 
from  asking  men  and  women  in  good  circum- 
stances in  the  South  of  our  own  country  to 
worship  regularly  in  the  churches  of  their 
Negro  servants.  This  social  pressure  has 
made  itself  felt  not  merely  in  reference  to 
public  worship,  but  by  the  insidious  channels 
of  family  and  other  associations,  since  ardent 
Catholics  have  always  managed  to  have  it 
understood  that  interest  in  Protestantism  was 
bad  form.  Heavy  pressure  of  another  sort 
also  has  regularly  been  exerted,  namely,  in 
business  and  financial  matters.  Men  with 
property  or  in  business  have  not  been  willing 
to  risk  the  chances  of  boycott,  a measure  that 
has  been  unhesitatingly  applied  when  neces- 
sary. The  gradual  introduction  of  a more 
liberal  atmosphere  is  changing  all  this. 
Mexicans  are  traveling  abroad;  many  for- 
eigners are  living  or  traveling  in  Mexico. 
The  feeling  that  to  obtrude  religious  preju- 
dices into  the  social  and  business  realm  is 
out  of  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  times 


186 


Mexico  To-Day 


is  becoming  general,  and  so  it  is  not  at  all 
uncommon  now  for  persons  whose  place  in 
the  business  and  social  world  is  secure  to 
follow  their  spiritual  promptings  and  become 
Protestants.  The  number  of  such  persons 
is  few  as  yet,  but  it  is  destined  to  increase, 
probably  rapidly  increase,  in  the  not  distant 
future. 

A Coming  Middle  Class.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  building  up  of  a middle  class  is  already 
going  on  rapidly.  Many  wage  earners  are 
securing  what  is  for  them  a competence  and 
becoming  economically  independent.  The 
federal  government,  the  separate  states — 
especially  the  more  progressive  and  wealthy 
ones — and  the  Protestant  missions  have  now 
for  about  forty  years  been  diligently  en- 
gaged in  the  development  of  popular  educa- 
tion. The  work  has  been  far  from  ideal  or 
satisfactory.  There  have  been  many  hin- 
drances. But  it  has  gone  on,  and  the  total 
outcome  after  more  than  a generation  is  most 
significant.  The  men  and  women  educated 
out  of  the  lowest  class  to  a distinctly  higher 
level  have  been  in  numbers  comparatively 
few,  but  their  influence  is  now  quite  out  of 
proportion  to  their  numbers.  They  are  of  a 
more  vital  and  ambitious  type  than  the  con- 
temporary descendants  of  the  privileged 


The  Protestant  Movement  187 

classes.  They  are  therefore  rapidly  displac- 
ing them  in  the  industrial,  business,  and  po- 
litical affairs  of  the  country.  The  revolu- 
tion of  1911  was  officered  almost  exclusively 
by  men  of  this  type.  The  proportion  of 
Protestants  among  its  leaders  was  note- 
worthy. They  were  there,  not  because  of  be- 
ing Protestants,  for  it  was  in  no  sense  a 
religious  movement,  but  because  of  their  fit- 
ness for  the  work  in  hand.  That  state  of 
things  has  continued  in  the  building  up  of  a 
new  army  and  the  manning  of  civil  govern- 
ment in  the  various  states.  The  difficulties 
with  which  the  Madero  government  had  to 
contend  were  many,  and  not  least  among 
them  was  the  prejudice  of  the  displaced 
aristocracy  against  this  invasion  of  the  bour- 
geoisie. 

Modes  of  Work.  Mission  work  in  Mexico  has 
been  carried  on  principally  along  the  two 
general  lines  of  evangelization  and  education. 
At  least  three  successful  ventures  in  medical 
work  have  been  made,  that  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  Guanajuato,  that  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  in  Mon- 
terey, and  that  of  the  Baptists  in  Guadala- 
jara. The  record  made  by  these  hospitals 
seems  to  indicate  that  such  agencies  might 
well  have  been  employed  even  more  exten- 


188 


Mexico  To-Day 


sively.  Medical  service  for  the  villagers, 
especially  in  retired  mountainous  sections,  is 
scant,  often  nil;  some  understanding  of  sim- 
ple remedies  is  therefore  of  great  advantage 
to  religious  workers  in  such  sections. 

Mission  Schools.  Educational  endeavor,  in 
one  form  or  another,  has  been  common  to  all 
the  evangelical  missions.  The  women’s 
boards  and  auxiliaries  especially  have  con- 
cerned themselves  with  this  line  of  work, 
mostly  for  girls,  and  have  had  large  and 
highly  satisfactory  results.  The  Mexicans 
distinctly  prefer  the  boarding-school,  often 
placing  their  daughters  as  boarders  when 
living  in  the  same  city.  Boarding-schools  for 
girls  have  thus  met  with  general  favor  in 
the  cities  of  the  republic.  When  judiciously 
managed  they  not  seldom  are  practically  self- 
sustaining,  aside  from  the  original  outlay  for 
a plant  and  the  salary  of  one  or  two  mission- 
aries. Public  opinion  is,  however,  highly  sen- 
sitive and  also  suspicious,  so  that  extreme 
care  in  management  is  essential  to  success. 
Coeducation,  for  example,  is  nowhere  ap- 
proved, and  the  attempt  to  introduce  it,  even 
in  the  lower  grades,  has  been  detrimental 
to  several  otherwise  successful  institutions. 
The  public  schools  rigidly  separate  boys  and 
girls  through  all  the  grades. 


GRADUATING  CLASS,  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  SALTILLO 


SARAH  L.  KEEN  COLLEGE  FOR  GIRLS,  MEXICO  CITY 


The  Protestant  Movement  189 

Education  of  Teachers.  The  most  effective 
outcome  of  the  girls’  schools  has  been  in  the 
development  at  several  of  these  institutions 
of  a teachers’  normal  course.  These  have 
proved  uniformly  successful ; the  demand  for 
their  graduates,  in  public  schools,  private  in- 
stitutions, and  other  mission  schools  being 
continuously  greater  than  the  supply.  These 
admirable  institutions  have  thus  sent  out 
into  the  influential  position  of  teacher  a large 
number  of  emancipated,  yet  modest  and 
Christian  young  women.  Their  influence  in 
the  course  of  another  generation  is  destined 
to  be  widespread. 

Reflex  Influences.  A by-product  of  the  edu- 
cational work  of  the  missions,  especially  that 
for  girls,  has  been  the  stirring  up  to  better 
standards  of  the  Catholic  schools.  There 
were  a good  many  of  these, -but  their  courses 
of  study  were  unscientific  and  their  interests 
chiefly  other  than  scholastic.  But  in  competi- 
tion with  the  effective  and  practical  courses 
given  in  the  Protestant  schools,  advantages 
for  which  students  and  their  parents  were 
willing  to  brave  even  religious  prejudice, 
these  older  institutions  had  either  to  improve 
or  lose  all  their  patronage.  In  order  to  hold 
their  own,  therefore,  they  have  taken  to  im- 
porting skilled  teachers  from  the  United 


190 


Mexico  To-Day 


States  and  elsewhere,  and  are  offering  many 
courses  of  study  not  before  found  in  their 
curricula.  Simultaneously,  as  has  been 
noted,  there  was  a general  development  of 
the  public  school  system.  And  so  great  has 
been  the  demand  for  education  that  volun- 
tary private  schools  have  been  financially 
successful  in  many  places.  Those  offering  a 
commercial  course  have  been  especially  popu- 
lar. 

The  Boys  Neglected.  In  the  education  of  boys 
and  young  men,  however,  the  missions  have 
done  nothing  like  so  well  as  with  the  girls’ 
schools.  The  women’s  societies  do  little  else 
than  educational  work,  and  hence  success- 
fully concentrate  on  it.  But  the  money  of  the 
general  boards  must  go  for  a number  of  other 
enterprises,  and  so  it  is  difficult  for  them  to 
be  sufficiently  liberal  with  educational  plants. 
In  many  of  the  missions,  day-schools  were  an 
early,  and  always  successful,  branch  of  work. 
This  work,  however,  by  reason  of  the  growing 
emphasis  on  evangelism,  has  largely  been 
abandoned.  The  system  of  public  schools, 
generally  promulgated  some  twenty-five  years 
ago,  promised  to  be  so  complete  that  it  was 
felt  by  many  that  the  education  of  the  nation 
was  sufficiently  provided  for.  Unfortunately 
it  proved  more  complete  on  paper  than  in 


The  Protestant  Movement  191 

reality,  and  many  missionary  leaders  are  now 
regretting  that  the  school  work  was  not  more 
persistently  followed  up  by  the  Churches. 

Theological  Training.  Practically  all  the 
chief  missions  have  recognized  the  need  of  an 
institution  for  the  training  of  their  own 
church  workers.  Hence  theological  semina- 
ries, or  more  exactly,  training  schools  for 
Christian  workers,  have  been  set  up  and 
maintained  by  the  Presbyterians  at  Mexico 
City,  by  the  Methodists  at  Puebla  and  San 
Luis  Potosi,  by  the  Congregationalists  at 
Guadalajara,  and  by  others.  Had  it  been  pos- 
sible to  develop,  along  with  these  training- 
schools,  first-class  high  schools  for  boys,  that 
wrnrk  would  have  been  most  fruitful.  At 
Puebla  the  Methodist  Episcopal  mission  has 
maintained  such  a school  and  it  has  been  a 
most  effective  agency  for  good.  But  the  class 
of  boys  available  for  students  in  these 
schools  have  been  unable  as  a rule  to  pay 
tuition  and  board  bills,  in  full,  at  least,  so 
that  failing  an  endowment,  large  annual 
grants  have  been  required  to  keep  up  this 
kind  of  work.  No  school  in  Mexico  has  as  yet 
been  endowed  otherwise  than  with  a few  spe- 
cial scholarships  or  similar  aids.  Had  a 
great  Protestant  college  been  set  down  in  that 
country  twenty  years  ago,  its  position  would 


192 


Mexico  To-Day 


by  this  time  be  as  commanding  as  is  that  of 
Robert  College  in  the  Balkans,  or  of  some  of 
the  great  missionary  institutions  in  India  and 
China.  It  is  not  even  yet  too  late  for  the 
planting  of  such  a school,  which  ought,  if 
founded,  to  be  interdenominational,  liberally 
equipped,  and  endowed.  There  are  few  open- 
ings in  America  more  promising  than  this 
for  the  bestowment  of  a substantial  sum  of 
money  by  some  philanthropist  who  seeks  to 
serve  his  generation.  It  has  proved  quite 
out  of  the  question  for  the  mission  boards  to 
make  even  a beginning  of  such  an  institution. 
The  native  churches  grow  so  slowly  into  a 
state  of  self-support  and  the  evangelistic 
work  is  so  urgent  and  so  successful  that  up  to 
the  present  these  boards  have  had  more  de- 
mands on  them  in  other  lines  than  their  in- 
come would  permit  them  to  meet. 

Evangelistic  Work.  As  has  been  intimated, 
the  outstanding  success  of  the  evangelical 
missionary  work  in  Mexico  has  been  in  the 
evangelistic  department.  The  work  of 
preaching  has,  it  is  true,  been  carried  on 
under  some  rather  severe  handicaps.  The 
Reform  Laws  forbid  the  holding  of  any  re- 
ligious service  in  the  open  air.  This  has  pre- 
vented all  forms  of  street  preaching,  market- 
place services,  camp-meetings,  and  the  like, 


FACULTY  AND  STUDENTS,  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY’,  COY'OACAN 
FACULTY  AND  STUDENTS,  QUERETARO  INSTITUTE 


The  Protestant  Movement  193 

in  a country  peculiarly  adapted  by  climate 
to  work  of  this  kind.  The  same  laws,  in 
return  for  this  hindrance,  rigorously  guaran- 
tee protection  for  all  congregations  meeting 
in  an  orderly  manner  in  private  houses  or  in 
halls  or  churches.  This  protection  has  often 
had  to  be  invoked  as  against  local  disturb- 
ances stirred  up  by  a few  fanatical  opponents 
of  anything  new  in  the  way  of  religious  wor- 
ship. 

Difficulties.  The  scattered  state  of  the  peo- 
ple in  rural  districts  and  the  lack  of  a 
genuinely  rural  element  in  the  population, 
the  necessity  of  holding  meetings  in  mean 
and  unattractive  quarters  in  the  cities,  the 
difficulty  of  securing  ministers  intellectually 
and  spiritually  fitted  for  leadership,  are  other 
hindrances  that  have  often  proved  grave. 
Nevertheless,  throughout  almost  the  entire 
period  of  work  in  Mexico,  evangelistic  en- 
deavor has  continued  fruitful.  The  secret  is 
that  the  people  have  a real  hunger  for  the 
gospel.  Its  doctrines  of  direct  approach  to 
God,  of  individual  accountability,  of  conscious 
pardon,  and  of  freedom  in  Christ  J esus  have 
for  them  a most  compelling  appeal. 

Influence  of  Song.  One  element  in  Protestant 
worship  that  has  proved  a special  attraction 
to  the  music-loving  Mexicans  has  been  the 


194 


Mexico  To-Day 


singing.  The  people  can  nearly  all  sing. 
They  have  an  innate  sense  of  harmony  and 
rarely  sing  discordant  notes,  though  in  keep- 
ing time  they  often  limp  a bit.  Much  poetic 
skill  has  come  to  light  among  the  converts 
there,  in  spite  of  their  seeming  illiteracy, 
showing  itself  especially  in  the  composition 
and  translation  of  hymns  and  songs  to  fit  the 
stirring  music  of  our  Sunday-school  and 
Church  hymnals.  These  hymns  have  sung 
their  way  into  the  hearts  of  the  people.  They 
had  had  nothing  of  the  sort  before.  The 
Catholic  worship,  aside  from  the  chanting  of 
a few  litanies,  has  no  popular  singing.  The 
songs  of  the  people  are  few,  many  of  them 
tainted  by  immoral  suggestions  and  associa- 
tions. One  interesting  type  of  these  is  a 
group  of  wailing,  minor  chord,  two  part,  love 
songs,  a kind  of  inheritance,  so  it  is  said,  from 
the  Moors.  These  are  spoken  of  usually  as 
canciones  rancheras — ranch  songs — and  have 
no  serious  claims  on  popular  favor.  The 
songs  and  hymns  of  Protestant  worship  are 
already  widely  known  and  are  taking  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  life  of  the  people. 

The  Bible  Once  More.  Another  element  in  the 
acceptability  of  evangelical  teaching  has  been 
the  stimulating  effect  of  the  Scriptures.  Many 
instances  are  on  record  in  Mexico  of  conver- 


The  Protestant  Movement  195 

sions  due  wholly  to  the  reading  of  Scripture, 
often  of  only  a small  portion  of  Scripture. 
There  are  two  Catholic  versions  of  the  Bible 
in  Spanish,  but  neither  is  to  be  had  in  a con- 
venient and  cheap  form.  There  has  been  a 
measure  of  confusion  as  to  which  is  the  best 
version  for  use  among  the  evangelical 
churches.  The  edition  most  commonly  circu- 
lated is  known  as  the  Valera  Bible,  from 
Cipriano  de  Valera,  who  made  a recension 
of  an  older  translation  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. It  has  been  revised  to  a limited  extent, 
and  in  recent  years  an  entirely  new  transla- 
tion, made  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Pratt,  was  brought 
out  by  the  American  Bible  Society.  There 
has  been  a considerable  measure  of  opposi- 
tion to  Bible  distribution,  stirred  up  invari- 
ably by  the  priests,  who  anathematize  the 
“ Protestant  Bible  ” as  a corrupt  book.  The 
convincing  answer  to  this  is  to  exhibit  with 
it  a Catholic  version.  A very  slight  inspec- 
tion will  show  that  the  two  are  in  all  essen- 
tials identical.  The  extent  to  which  the  great 
Bible  Societies  have  laid,  in  Mexico  as  else- 
where, the  foundation  for  all  missionary 
work  should  be  more  generally  recognized. 
For  the  separate  missions  to  have  provided 
each  for  itself  the  Scriptures  needed  even  in 
its  own  work  would  have  been  enormously  ex- 


196 


Mexico  To-Day 


pensive.  Besides,  the  Bible  Societies  con- 
tinually act  as  pioneers,  going  into  sections 
not  yet  occupied,  sowing  the  seed,  and  pre- 
paring the  ground  for  the  organized  work  of 
some  denomination  to  follow  later.  All  alike 
are  indebted  to  them  and  all  alike  should  join 
heartily  in  their  support. 

Ministerial  Supply.  Evangelistic  preaching 
has  been  the  chief  reliance  for  securing  con- 
verts to  Christianity.  The  people  are  fond  of 
oratory,  and  often  exhibit  surprising  pro- 
ficiency in  public  speaking.  Missionaries  are 
usually  able  to  master  the  Spanish  language 
sufficiently  to  preach  to  good  effect.  Other 
things  being  equal,  however,  the  exhorta- 
tions and  teaching  of  a Mexican  are  more 
fruitful,  by  reason  of  those  subtle  thought 
processes  peculiar  to  every  people  into  which 
the  foreigner  rarely  succeeds  in  entering,  no 
matter  how  fluently  he  may  speak  the  lan- 
guage. There  has  usually  been  no  lack  of 
volunteers  for  the  ministry  among  the  con- 
verts. But  the  number  of  young  men  who  are 
sufficiently  devoted  to  undergo  an  adequate 
course  of  training  is  small.  The  ranks  are 
still  further  depleted  when  a few  years  of 
experience  have  shown  how  meager  is,  and 
for  the  present  must  remain,  the  stipend 
which  they  receive.  The  congregations  can- 


The  Protestant  Movement  197 

not  pay  a great  deal,  though  most  of  them 
could  do  better  than  they  do,  and  the  missions 
dare  not  pay  a liberal  salary  for  fear  of  open- 
ing a breach  between  workingmen  and  Church 
leaders,  as  well  as  putting  a premium  on  ve- 
nality. Thus  it  comes  about  that  many  suc- 
cessful young  ministers  drift  into  secular  pur- 
suits, often  at  the  time  when  they  could  be 
most  serviceable.  Probably  no  other  single 
problem  besets  the  missionaries  more  per- 
sistently than  this.  There  is  a sense,  to  be 
sure,  in  which  these  young  men  are  hardly  to 
be  blamed.  They  have  usually  married,  and 
as  their  families  begin  to  grow  expensive  and 
the  problem  of  educating  their  children  pre- 
sents itself,  it  is  natural  that  they  should 
think  seriously  and  even  conscientiously  upon 
the  question  of  whether  they  will  remain  in 
mission  work  or  take  up  some  other  vocation 
at  perhaps  double  the  income.  That  a good 
many  of  them  do  violence  to  their  consciences 
by  leaving  the  ministry  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  after  leaving  it  they  do  not  hold  to 
their  Christian  integrity.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  are  quite  as  loyal  to  Christ  and  as 
faithful  in  his  service  as  laymen  as  they  were 
as  ministers.  It  is  especially  encouraging  to 
observe  how  generally  their  children  do  well. 
Even  when  the  father  has  been  drawn  back 


198 


Mexico  To-Day 


into  the  world,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the 
sons  to  develop  into  faithful  and  valuable 
Christians.  Already  a second  generation  of 
Protestant  Christians  has  had  time  to  come 
to  maturity  in  Mexico,  and  the  churches  are 
showing  the  effects  of  it.  The  ablest  min- 
isters to-day,  the  most  efficient  lay  church  offi- 
cers, and  many  of  the  ablest  and  most  pro- 
gressive citizens  are  men  who  “ from  a child 
have  known  the  Scriptures.” 

Consolations  of  Religion.  Something  should 
be  said  also  of  the  consolations  which  the  gos- 
pel brings  to  the  individual.  The  Mexican 
people  as  a people  are  profiting,  as  we  have 
seen,  by  the  introduction  of  a spiritual  type 
of  Christianity  and  its  effects  on  public  inter- 
ests. But  in  few  countries  are  the  joys  of 
conscious  communion  with  a saving  Christ 
more  profoundly  helpful  to  sorrowing  men 
and  women  than  in  Mexico.  Life  there  for 
the  people  of  the  poorer  classes,  has  long  been 
a hard,  narrow  experience.  Hopeless  poverty 
has  rested  on  them  for  so  many  generations 
that  it  is  accepted  with  fatalistic  resignation. 
Sickness  has  to  be  borne  in  the  same  way,  for 
there  is  no  medical  treatment  in  reach  of  most 
' of  them.  Their  religion,  real  and  present  as 
it  always  is,  for  they  are  a devout  people, 
has  become  a tawdry  worship  of  wooden  dolls 


TRINITY  CHURCH,  CHIHUAHUA 


McMURTRIE  CHAPEL  AND  MANSE,  COYOACAN 


The  Protestant  Movement  199 

and  cheap  chromos.  Of  civic  consciousness 
and  the  sense  of  freedom  they  have  prac- 
tically nothing,  for  ignorance  and  helpless- 
ness have  been  their  portion  so  long  that  they 
know  not  how  to  bring  themselves  to  hope  for 
anything  better. 

The  Gospel  in  Its  Element.  It  is  in  such  an 
atmosphere  as  this  that  the  gospel  is  most 
at  home.  To  bless  and  change  such  condi- 
tion it  was  “made  and  provided.”  It  was 
the  common  people  who  heard  Jesus  gladly. 
Publicans  and  harlots  flocked  into  the  King- 
dom, even  when  the  doctors  of  the  law  held 
aloof.  The  gospel  gives  most  to  those  who 
need  most.  The  Mexicans  rejoice  over  it  as 
over  a pearl  of  great  price.  They  are  some- 
times slow  to  accept  its  moral  demands. 
They  do  not  know  how  to  organize  and  con- 
duct a church  or  even  a Sunday-school.  They 
emerge  from  their  poverty  and  ignorance 
with  painful  slowness,  often  not  at  all.  But 
in  the  consolations  of  the  gospel,  the  joy  of 
sins  forgiven,  the  consciousness  of  salvation 
in  Christ  Jesus,  they  absolutely  revel.  It 
brightens  their  faces,  sets  them  to  singing, 
lights  up  their  poor  homes,  and  makes  more 
tolerable  their  poverty  and  disease.  They 
become  heroes  and  martyrs.  More  than  sixty 
have  laid  down  their  lives  for  Christ’s  sake 


200 


Mexico  To-Day 


during  these  last  four  decades.  It  makes 
them  apostles  to  their  kinsmen  and  neighbors. 
The  churches  in  Mexico  are  witnessing 
churches.  By  many  a lowly  bedside  our  peo- 
ple there  bear  testimony  with  their  last 
breath  that  Jesus  Christ  is  to  them  wisdom 
and  sanctification  and  redemption.  Mission- 
aries are  as  careful  as  possible  to  avoid  mak- 
ing the  impression  that  what  they  are  seek- 
ing is  converts  from  Catholicism  to  Prot- 
estantism, and  not  rather  the  redemption  of 
men  and  women  from  sin.  But  it  is  true  that 
exceedingly  few  who  have  tasted  of  the  good 
word  of  God  and  the  power  of  the  life  to  come 
care  to  go  back  to  the  “ elements  ” of  their 
earlier  faith.  Stories  of  death-bed  repent- 
ance for  “ heresy  ” may  usually  be  dis- 
counted. 

A Reformed  Romanism.  The  truth  is  that  the 
“ Church  of  their  fathers  ” must  reestablish 
its  hold  upon  the  Mexicans  by  other  methods 
than  those  through  which  for  several  cen- 
turies it  has  held  undisputed  sway.  Appeal 
must  now  be  made  to  the  judgment  and  moral 
sense  of  the  people.  Mere  authority  will  no 
longer  suffice.  The  appeal  of  tawdry  trap- 
pings and  of  gorgeous  ritual  does  not  win  the 
thoughtful,  and  the  Mexicans  are  becoming 
thoughtful.  Whatever  strength  the  Roman 


A CHRISTIAN  FAMILY 


TYPICAL  RURAL  HOME  OF  A CHRISTIAN  FAMILY 


The  Protestant  Movement  201 

Catholic  Church  shall  exhibit  in  the  future — 
and  doubtless  it  will  remain  a potent  factor  in 
the  life  of  the  Mexican  people — must  be  at- 
tained largely  as  Protestantism  is  seeking  to 
establish  its  hold,  “ by  pureness,  by  knowl- 
edge, by  long-suffering,  by  kindness,  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  by  love  unfeigned,  by  the  word 
of  truth,  by  the  power  of  God.”  To  bring 
back  thus  into  the  realm  of  spiritual  vitality 
the  mighty  enginery  of  that  efficient  and  ven- 
erable organization  is  destined  to  be  one  of 
the  praiseworthy  achievements  of  Protestant 
work  in  Catholic  countries. 

Influence  of  Politics.  The  prevailing  political 
unrest,  in  spite  of  its  disastrous  effects  on  the 
economic  condition  of  Mexico,  is  destined  to 
fall  out  to  the  furtherance  of  the  gospel.  The 
struggle  is  but  a continuance  of  Mexico’s 
long-drawn-out  effort  to  shake  herself  free 
of  tyrannies,  political,  industrial,  religious. 
It  is  profoundly  stirring  the  intellectual  life 
of  the  people.  They  are  taking  lessons  as 
never  before  in  the  art  of  thinking  for  them- 
selves. They  are  bound  to  see  that  the  real 
cause  of  this  prolonging  of  their  struggle  for 
freedom  is  in  their  own  ignorance  and  moral 
inefficiency.  They  need  education  and  they 
need  moral  stiffening.  These  are  precisely 
the  things  for  which  Protestantism  stands. 


202 


Mexico  To-Day 


The  boys  and  girls  who  have  been  trained  in 
the  evangelical  churches  and  schools  are  to- 
day making  proof  of  their  training.  They  are 
now  men  and  women  and  they  are  in  the  eye 
of  the  people.  When  a really  popular  gov- 
ernment gets  on  its  feet  in  Mexico,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  young  people  trained  by  the 
missionaries  will  be  as  prominent  in  it  as 
they  are  in  China  under  the  new  order  of 
things.  That  will  mean  a new  day  for  evan- 
gelical work  in  Mexico.  Conditions  to-day, 
disturbed  as  they  are  at  the  moment  of  this 
writing,  are  no  occasion  for  the  withdrawing 
of  our  hand.  On  the  contrary,  they  call  loudly 
for  the  strengthening  of  every  agency. 

Future  Possibilities.  Schools,  churches,  hos- 
pitals, dispensaries,  and  other  agencies  will 
presently  be  popular  as  never  before.  In- 
deed, during  the  worst  months  of  the  revolu- 
tion, mission  schools  have  remained  crowded 
to  their  capacity.  The  temporary  disabling 
of  much  of  the  public  school  system  makes  at 
once  a demand  and  an  opportunity  for  mis- 
sionary institutions.  That  great  Republic, 
destined  by  its  very  location  and  resources 
to  set  the  type  and  hold  the  leadership  of  all 
Latin  America,  is  sure  to  be  a field  worthy 
the  life  devotion  of  our  best  and  brightest 
young  people. 


The  Protestant  Movement  203 

Some  Readjustments  Needed.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  in  its  details  the  missionary  work 
in  Mexico  may  have  to  go  through  a process 
of  readjustment.  Present  conditions  make 
the  time  for  that  propitious.  The  problem  in 
brief  is  to  shift  the  Church  organizations 
from  their  present  basis  of  dependence  on  the 
mission  boards  of  the  United  States  to  one 
of  independence  and  self-support.  The 
period  of  tutelage  has  been  too  long  already. 
No  satisfactory  progress  in  the  direction  of 
great  national  Churches  can  be  made  by  so- 
cieties which  draw  their  sustenance  from  im- 
ported funds.  At  all  costs  the  transition 
must  be  made.  Doubtless  it  will  be  costly. 
It  may  seem  to  result  in  a period  of  non- 
progress or  even  of  retrogression.  But  such 
a period  will  be  only  temporary.  The  evan- 
gelical churches  of  Mexico  have  in  them  too 
much  of  vitality  to  perish  thus.  Fortunately 
the  missions  of  related  denominations  show 
a ready  mind  for  getting  together.  One 
Presbyterian  Church  and  one  Methodist 
Church  for  the  whole  nation  will  be  easy  of 
achievement.  The  churches  of  congrega- 
tional government  will  also  doubtless  work 
out  their  problems  harmoniously  and  with 
the  nation  as  a unit. 


204 


Mexico  To-Day 


Denominational  Cooperation.  It  would  seem 
that  certain  forms  of  denominational  coop- 
eration might  well  be  inaugurated.  The 
several  churches  are  even  now  working  to- 
gether in  preparing  Spanish  editions  of  the 
Graded  Lessons  for  Sunday-schools.  A 
number  of  them  might  combine  to  advantage 
in  issuing  a religious  periodical.  There  is 
general  discussion  also  of  cooperation  in 
theological  education.  A seminary  repre- 
senting three  or  four  of  the  strongest  mis- 
sions working  together  might  have  an  equip- 
ment and  a faculty  that  would  at  once  reduce 
the  expense  of  this  necessary  work  and  do 
the  work  more  satisfactorily.  Such  an  in- 
stitution would  command  public  respect  in  a 
way  not  possible  to  the  separate  small  and 
poorly  equipped  training-schools  as  now 
maintained.  It  might  even  become  the  nu- 
cleus of  a great  college  or  university  under 
Christian  auspices.  Nothing  could  do  mox’e 
for  Mexico  than  such  an  institution  as  that. 

Self-support.  Meantime  the  Mexican  congre- 
gations should  be  encouraged  to  undertake 
as  rapidly  as  possible  their  own  support. 
With  a view  to  this,  a very  large  measure  of 
autonomy  should  be  allowed  them.  Church 
life  in  every  land  is  bound  to  work  out 
indigenous  forms  of  organization.  The 


The  Protestant  Movement  205 

Churches  which  send  missionaries  to  Mexico 
should  be  more  concerned  for  the  Christian- 
izing of  the  people  than  for  the  importation 
into  that  country  of  any  special  types  of 
church  organization  and  government. 

Invitation  to  the  Missionary.  Despite  the 
gloomy  clouds  now  overshadowing  sunny 
Mexico,  I am  sure  that  it  is  bound  yet  to 
be,  as  it  has  been,  a most  inviting  field  for  the 
missionary.  It  is  near  at  hand  and  easy  of 
access.  The  climate  is  healthful.  The  peo- 
ple are  groping  for  a friendly  hand.  They 
need  help.  To  minister  to  rich  and  poor 
alike,  to  aid  in  dissipating  the  thick  cloud  of 
ignorance,  to  bring  home  the  consolations 
of  a living  faith  to  those  whose  earthly  lot, 
like  that  of  their  fathers  before  them,  is  hard 
and  comfortless,  to  help  the  leaders  of  the 
people  in  developing  the  intelligence  and  mo- 
rality needed  for  placing  on  a firm  footing 
government  of  the  people  by  the  people,  to 
take  part,  in  brief,  in  the  making  of  a great 
and  free  and  prosperous  nation — such  is  the 
joyous  prospect  open  to  the  missionary  to 
Mexico.  And  while  engaged  in  this  enticing 
task  he  will  live  in  a land  of  romance  and  of 
entrancing  beauty.  Fair  skies  will  shine  upon 
him  and  soft  winds  will  fan  his  cheek.  Wide 
plains  and  rugged  mountains  will  stretch 


206 


Mexico  To-Day 


their  panorama  of  gold  and  purple  beauty 
before  his  eyes,  under  a light  so  silvery  and 
dazzling  that  to  those  who  have  not  seen  it 
it  cannot  be  described.  A gentle  and  grate- 
ful and  affectionate  people  will  surround 
him,  full  of  spiritual  longings  and  eager  for 
the  gospel.  Their  soft  and  liquid  speech 
will  become  to  him  as  his  own  mother  tongue. 
He  will  see  many  sons  and  daughters  born 
into  the  kingdom  of  his  Lord,  and  will  hold 
sweet  fellowship  with  brothers  and  sisters 
of  his  own  Father’s  family.  He  will  minis- 
ter at  the  bedside  of  dying  saints  as  patri- 
archal and  as  devout  as  Abraham  and  Isaac 
or  as  Simeon  or  Anna  or  Dorcas.  He  will 
train  as  his  own  sons  the  young  men  who  in 
a coming  generation  will  preach  the  gospel 
to  their  people  or  take  up  the  burden  of 
teaching  its  youth  or  administering  its  busi- 
ness. He  will  thus  help  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  a great  nation,  rich  and  strong 
and  proud,  a predestined  leader  in  the  sis- 
terhood of  Spanish  American  republics. 
Before  another  century  missionaries  will  be 
going  out  from  there  to  carry  the  good  news 
in  their  own  beautiful  language  to  other  less 
favored  regions  where  that  tongue  is  spoken, 
perhaps,  even,  to  the  mother  country  of  it 
beyond  the  sea. 


APPENDIXES 


APPENDIXES 


APPENDIX  A1 

Constitution  and  Government 

Mexico  was  annexed  to  the  Spanish  crown  by  conquest 
in  1521,  and  for  three  centuries  continued  to  be  governed 
by  Spain.  In  1810  the  rule  of  the  Spanish  viceroys  had 
become  so  tyrannical  that  it  caused  an  outbreak  headed  by 
the  patriot  priest  Hidalgo,  who  on  September  15,  1810, 
declared  the  independence  of  Mexico.  In  1821  General 
Augustin  Iturbide  declared  himself  Emperor  of  Mexico, 
but  in  1824  he  had  to  flee,  and  the  Republic  was  established. 
Several  Presidents  ruled  the  destinies  of  this  country  with 
more  or  less  severity  until  1864,  when  the  throne  of  Mexico 
was  offered  to  Archduke  Ferdinand  Maximilian  of  Austria. 
He  was  executed  in  1867,  and  Juarez,  who  had  been  Presi- 
dent in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  took  the  reins  of 
government.  He  was  followed  by  Lerdo  de  Tigada,  who  in 
1876  fled,  and  General  Porfirio  Diaz  made  his  entry  into 
Mexico  City.  He  ruled  the  country  with  the  exception  of 
1880-4  (General  Manuel  Gonzalez)  until  May,  1911,  when  he 
presented  his  resignation  to  Congress.  Senor  F.  de  la 
Barra  acted  as  President  ad  interim  until  the  elections  had 
taken  place. 

The  present  Constitution  of  Mexico  bears  date  of  Feb- 
ruary 5,  1857,  with  subsequent  modifications  down  to  May, 
1908.  By  its  terms  Mexico  is  declared  a federative  republic- 
divided  into  states — 19  at  the  outset,  but  at  present  27 
in  number,  with  three  territories  and  the  Federal  District 
— each  of  which  has  a right  to  manage  its  own  local  affairs, 
while  the  whole  are  bound  together  in  one  body  politic  by 
fundamental  and  constitutional  laws.  The  powers  of  the 
supreme  government  are  divided  into  three  branches,  the 
legislative,  executive,  and  judicial.  The  legislative  power 
is  vested  in  a Congress  consisting  of  a House  of  Repre- 
sentatives (233  members)  and  a Senate,  and  the  Executive 
in  a President.  Representatives  are  elected  for  two  years 
by  the  suffrage  of  all  respectable  male  adults,  at  the  rate 
of  one  member  for  40,000  inhabitants.  The  qualifications 

1 Appendixes  A to  D are  taken  from  Statesman's  Year-Book,  1912. 

209 


210 


Appendix  A 


requisite  are,  to  be  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  a resident 
in  the  state.  The  Senate  consists  of  fifty-six  members,  two 
for  each  state,  of  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  who  are 
returned  in  the  same  manner  as  the  deputies.  The  members 
of  both  Houses  receive  salaries  of  $3,000  a year.  The  Pres- 
ident is  elected  by  electors  popularly  chosen  in  a general 
election,  holds  office  for  six  years,  and,  according  to  an 
amendment  of  the  Constitution  in  1887,  may  be  elected  for 
consecutive  terms.  The  election  of  the  Vice-President  takes 
place  in  the  same  manner  and  at  the  same  date  as  that  of 
the  President.  The  Vice-President  is  ex  officio  President 
of  the  Senate,  with  a voice  in  the  discussions  but  without 
vote.  Failing  the  President  through  absence  or  otherwise, 
the  Vice-President  discharges  the  functions  of  the  President. 
Failing  both,  Congress  shall  call  for  new  elections  to  be 
held  at  once.  Congress  has  to  meet  annually  from  April 
1 to  May  31,  and  from  September  16  to  December  15,  and 
a permanent  committee  of  both  Houses  sits  during  the 
recesses. 

President  of  the  Republic. — Senor  Don  Francisco  I.  Ma- 
dero;  elected  October  14,  1911;  inaugurated  November  6, 
1911;  killed  February  23,  1913. 

General  Huerta  assumed  power,  February,  1913. 

The  administration  is  carried  on,  under  the  direction 
of  the  President  and  a Council,  by  eight  Secretaries  of 
State,  heads  of  the  Departments  of:  1.  Foreign  Affairs; 
2.  Interior;  3.  Justice;  4.  Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts; 
5.  Fomento,  Colonization,  and  Industry;  6.  Communications 
and  Public  Works;  7.  Finances  and  Public  Credit;  8.  War 
and  Marine. 


Local  Government 

Each  separate  state  has  its  own  internal  constitution, 
government,  and  laws;  but  interstate  customs  duties  are 
not  permitted,  though  state  taxes  are  levied.  Each  state 
has  its  governor,  legislature,  and  judicial  officers  popularly 
elected  under  rules  similar  to  those  of  the  Federation;  and 
the  civil  and  criminal  code  in  force  in  the  Federal  District 
prevails  only  in  the  Federal  District  and  territories  (Tepic, 
Lower  California,  and  Quintana  Roo).  All  the  other  states 
of  the  Mexican  Union  have  their  own  special  codes  based, 
more  or  less,  on  those  of  the  Federal  District;  but  at  the 
same  time  they  must  publish  and  enforce  laws  issued  by 
the  federal  government. 


Appendix  B 
appendix  B 

Abea  and  Population 


211 


States  and  Territories 

A rea  in 
Square 
Miles 

Census 

Population 

1910 

Census 

Population 

1900 

Population 
Per  Square 
Mile,  1900 

Atlantic  States 

Tamaulipas 

32,128 

249,253 

218,948 

6.8 

Vera  Cruz  

29,201 

1,124,368 

981,030 

33.9 

Tabasco 

10,072 

183,708 

159,834 

15.8 

Campeche  

18,087 

85,795 

86,542 

4.7 

Yucatan  

35,203 

337,020 

314,087 

8.9 

Total  

124,692 

1,980,144 

1,760,441 

14.1 

Inland  States 

Chihuahua  

87,802 

405,265 

367,652 

327,784 

3.7 

Coahuila  

63,569 

296,938 

4.6 

Nuevo  Leon  

23,592 

368,929 

327,937 

13.9 

Durango  

38,009 

436.147 

370,294 

9.8 

Zacatecas  

24,757 

475,863 

462,190 

18.7 

San  Luis  Potosi  

25,316 

624,748 

575,432 

22.7 

Aguasealientes  

2,950 

118,978 

102,416 

34.7 

Guanajuato  

11,370 

1,075,270 

1,061,724 

93.4 

Quer6taro  

3,556 

243,515 

232,389 

65.3 

Hidalgo  

8,917 

641,895 

605,051 

67.8 

Mexico  

9,247 

975,019 

934,463 

101.1 

Federal  District  

463 

719,052 

541,516 

1169.5 

Morelos  

2,773 

179,814 

160,115 

58.3 

Tlaxcala  

1,595 

183,805 

172,315 

108.0 

Puebla  

12,204 

1,092,456 

1,021,133 

83.7 

Total  

316,125 

7,868,411 

7,191,697 

22.7 

Pacific  States 

Lower  California  ( Ter. ) 

58,328 

52,244 

47,624 

0.8 

Sonora  

76,900 

262,545 

221,682 

2.8 

Sinaloa  

33,671 

323,499 

296,701 

8.8 

Tepic  (Ter.)  

11,275 

171,337 

150,098 

13.2 

Jalisco  

31,846 

1,202,802 

1,153,891 

36.2 

Colima  

2,272 

77,704 

65,115 

28.6 

Michoacan  

22,874 

991,649 

930,033 

40.6 

Guerrero  

24,996 

605,437 

479,205 

19.2 

Oaxaca  

35,382 

1,041,035 

948,633 

26.8 

Chiapas  

27,222 

436.817 

360,799 

13.3 

Islands  

324,768 

1,420 

5,165,070 

4,653,781 

14.3 

Grand  Total  . . 

767,005 

15,063,207 

13,605,919 

17.7 

212 


Appendix  B 


Chief  Census  Features 

Since  1900  the  territory  of  Quintana  Roo  has  been  formed 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  Yucatan. 

In  1900  there  were  6,716,007  males  and  6,829,455  females. 
19  per  cent,  are  of  pure,  or  nearly  pure,  white  race,  43  per 
cent,  of  mixed  race,  and  38  per  cent,  of  Indian  race.  Dis- 
tinctions of  race  are  abolished  by  the  Constitution  of  1824. 
The  foreign  population  in  1900  numbered  57,507 : — Spanish, 
16,258;  United  States,  15,265;  Guatemalan,  5,804;  French, 
3,976;  British,  2,845;  Cuban,  2,721;  German,  2,565;  Italian, 
2,564;  Chinese,  2,834. 

The  chief  cities,  1910,  are: — Mexico  (capital),  470,659; 
Puebla,  101,214;  Guadalajara,  118,799;  San  Luis  Potosi, 
82,946;  Leon,  63,263;  Monterey,  81,006;  Pachuca,  38,620; 
Zacatecas,  25,905;  Guanajuato,  35,147;  Merida,  61,999; 
Querfitaro,  35,011;  Morelia,  39,116;  Oaxaca,  37,469;  Ori- 
zaba, 32,894;  Aguascalientes,  44,800;  Saltillo,  35,063;  Du- 
rango, 34,085;  Chihuahua,  39,061;  Vera  Cruz,  29,164; 
Toluca  31,247;  Celaya,  25,565. 


APPENDIX  C 

Religion,  Instbuction,  and  Justice 

The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  the 
Church  is  independent  of  the  state,  and  there  is  toleration 
of  all  other  religions.  No  ecclesiastical  body  can  acquire 
landed  property.  There  are  7 archbishops  and  23  suffragan 
bishops.  In  1900,  13,533,013  Roman  Catholics;  51,795 
Protestants;  3,811  of  other  faiths;  18,640  of  no  professed 
faith. 

Education  is  free  and  compulsory.  In  1895,  10,345,899 
could  neither  read  nor  write;  1,782,822  could  read  and 
write;  323,336  could  only  read;  39,516  unknown.  In  1905 
elementary  schools  supported  by  the  Federation  and  states 
(exclusive  of  infant  schools),  6,098,  by  municipalities, 
2,985;  total,  9,083  schools,  of  which  4,876  were  for  boys, 
2,458  for  girls,  and  1,749  mixed;  575,972  enrolled  pupils 
(352,333  boys  and  223,639  girls).  For  secondary  instruc- 
tion the  federal  and  state  governments  had  34  schools 
(27  for  boys,  3 for  girls,  and  4 mixed)  with  4,231  pupils 
(3,793  boys  and  438  girls).  For  professional  instruction 
there  were  68  institutions  and  colleges  (34  for  men,  17  for 
women,  and  17  mixed);  they  had  (1905)  9,327  enrolled 
students  (5,258  men  and  4,069  women).  Expenditure  on 


Appendix  C 


213 


schools  $9, 836,92s.1  The  private,  clerical,  and  associa- 

tion schools  numbered  2,499  with  152,917  pupils  (81,947 
boys  and  70,970  girls).  In  1912  the  system  of  primary 
education  was  more  fully  extended  so  as  to  reach  the  native 
population. 

In  1904  there  were  the  National  Library,  with  180,000 
volumes,  and  138  other  public  libraries.  There  were  in 
that  year  34  museums  for  scientific  and  educational  pur- 
poses, and  11  meteorological  observatories.  The  number  of 
periodicals  published  was  459,  of  which  439  were  in  Spanish, 
12  in  English,  5 in  Spanish  and  English,  2 in  Italian, 
1 in  French. 

The  judicial  power,  which  is  entirely  distinct  from  and 
independent  of  the  executive,  consists  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
with  15  judges  chosen  for  a period  of  six  years,  three 
Circuit  Courts,  with  3 judges,  and  District  Courts,  with 
32  judges. 

The  Ordinary,  Civil,  Criminal,  and  Correctional  Courts 
are  controlled  by  the  Department  of  Justice  and  Public 
Instruction. 


APPENDIX  D 
Production  and  Industry 

Cultivated  lands,  30,027,500  acres;  pastoral  lands,  120,- 
444,200  acres;  forest  lands,  43,933,200  acres.  Agriculture 
is  in  a very  primitive  condition.  Agricultural  products 
are  maize,  cotton,  henequen,  wheat,  coffee,  beans;  cotton 
is  grown  in  the  Laguna  district  on  the  Nazas  River,  and 
is  dependent  on  irrigation  which  is  being  extended.  There 
is  a large  output  of  sugar  and  molasses,  valued  at  about 
$12,610,000  annually  (crop  for  1911-12  estimated  at  160,- 
000  tons),  and  the  production  of  spirits  in  1910  was 
9,838,000  gallons.  There  are  1,674  alcohol  distilleries. 
There  are  many  colonies,  or  agricultural  settlements,  es- 
tablished either  by  the  government  or  by  companies  or 
persons  authorized  by  the  government. 

On  June  30,  1902,  there  were  in  Mexico  5,142,457  head 
of  cattle,  859,217  horses,  334,435  mules,  287,991  asses, 
3,424,430  sheep,  4,206,011  goats,  and  616,139  pigs,  the  whole 
being  valued  at  about  $117,000,000. 

Mining  is  carried  on  in  24  of  the  31  States  and  Terri- 
tories, nearly  all  the  mines  yielding  silver  either  alone 
or  in  combination  with  other  ores. 

1 Dollars  throughout  are  Mexican,  two  of  which  equal  one  dollar  of  the 
United  States. 


214  Appendix  D 

Mineral  products  exported  in  1908,  1909,  and  1910: — 


1908 

1909 

1910 

Gold,  kilogrammes  

20,156 

29,383 

31,970 

Silver,  kilogrammes 

2,325,907 

2,191,249 

2,254,103 

Copper  and  ore,  metric  tons 

118,568 

117,484 

203,465 

Lead  and  ore  

104,057 

122,907 

125,396 

Iron  and  ore  

54 

2 

Antimony 

4,406 

4,095 

4,375 

Zinc  ore  

43,339 

41,267 

54,136 

Graphite 

1,827 

1,690 

2,722 

Marble  

1,340 

992 

1,166 

Salt  

3,778 

5,365 

4,429 

Asphalt  

3,835 

5,692 

3,691 

Sulphur  

884 

3,352 

3,221 

Value  of  mineral  output  for  1909-10:  Gold,  $42,636,402; 
silver,  $76,349,122;  others,  $37,534,551;  total,  $156,520,075. 

The  output  of  coal  is  estimated  at  700,000  tons  annually. 
Opals  are  mined  in  Quer6taro ; output  not  stated. 

There  is  a Mint  at  the  Capital,  and  13  Assay  offices 
( Federal ) . 

Important  metallurgical  works  are  carried  on  at  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Monterey,  Durango,  and  Aguascalientes. 

On  June  30,  1910,  there  were  142  (19  not  working)  cotton 
factories,  employing  31,963  workmen;  spindles  702,874; 
looms,  25,017;  stamping  machines,  41.  The  consumption 
of  cotton  in  1909-10  was  34,736,154  kilos;  the  output  of 
yarn,  2,768,314  kilos,  and  of  cotton  piece  goods  and  prints, 
13,936,269  pieces.  There  were  451  tobacco  factories,  the 
annual  output  of  which  was:  511,573,779  packets  of  ciga- 
rettes, 41,839,416  cheroots,  39,676,294  cigars,  193  packets 
of  snuff,  and  75,770  kilos  of  tobacco.  There  were  1,674 
distilleries  giving  an  output  of  39,352,205  litres  of  spirits  of 
various  sorts. 


Appendix  E 


215 


APPENDIX  E 
Bibliography 
Books 

Abbott,  Gorham  B.  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  1869. 

G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York.  (Out  of  print.) 
Ballou,  M.  M.  Aztec  Land.  1895.  Houghton,  Mifflin  & 
Co.,  Boston.  $1.50. 

Barton,  Mary.  Impressions  of  Mexico  with  Brush  and 
Pen.  1911.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  $3.00. 
Blake,  M.  E.,  and  Sullivan,  M.  F.  Mexico — Picturesque, 
Political,  Progressive.  Lothrop,  Lee  & Shepard,  Boston. 
$1.25. 

Brown,  Hubert  W.  Latin  America.  1901.  Fleming  H. 

Revell  Co.,  New  York.  $1.20,  net. 

Butler,  J.  W.  Mexico  Coming  Into  Light.  1907.  Metho- 
dist Book  Concern,  New  York.  35  cents. 

Butler,  J.  W.  Sketches  of  Mexico.  1894.  Methodist  Book 
Concern,  New  York.  $1.00. 

Butler,  C.  William  Butler,  the  Founder  of  Two  Missions 
of  the  Methodist  Church.  1902.  Methodist  Book  Con- 
cern, New  York.  $1.00. 

Butler,  W.  Mexico  in  Transition.  1892.  Western  Metho- 
dist Book  Concern,  Cincinnati.  $2.00. 

Calderon  de  La  Barca,  Madame.  Life  in  Mexico  During  a 
Residence  of  Two  Years  in  that  Country.  1910.  Amer- 
ican News  Co.,  New  York.  $2.25. 

Carson,  W.  E.  Mexico  the  Wonderland  of  the  South. 

1909.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  $2.25. 
Clark,  F.  E.  and  H.  A.  The  Gospel  in  Latin  Lands.  1909. 

The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  50  cents. 

Coe,  F.  E.  Our  American  Neighbors.  1910.  Silver,  Bur- 
dett  & Co.,  New  York.  60  cents. 

Convention  Between  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  1908. 
United  States  Department,  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Washington.  5 cents. 

Creelman,  James.  Diaz,  Master  of  Mexico.  1911.  D. 

Appleton  & Co.,  New  York.  $2.00. 

Douglass,  J.  The  United  States  and  Mexico.  1910.  Amer- 
ican Association  for  International  Conciliation,  New 
York.  Gratis. 

Duggan,  J.  P.  A Mexican  Ranch.  1907.  American  Bap- 
tist Publication  Society,  Philadelphia.  50  cents. 

Enock,  C.  R.  Mexico:  Its  Ancient  and  Modem  Civilization. 
1909.  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York.  $3.00. 


216 


Appendix  E 


Edwards,  W.  S.  On  the  Mexican  Highlands.  1910.  West- 
ern Methodist  Book  Concern,  Cincinnati.  $1.50. 
Gillpatrick,  Owen  W.  The  Man  Who  Likes  Mexico.  1911. 

Century  Company,  New  York.  $2.00. 

Goodrich,  James  K.  Coming  Mexico.  1913.  A.  C.  Mc- 
Clurg  & Co.,  Chicago.  $1.50. 

Graham,  A.  A.  Mexico,  with  Comparisons  and  Conclu- 
sions. 1907.  Crane  & Co.,  Topeka,  Kansas.  $1.00. 

Hale,  Susan.  Mexico.  (Story  of  Nations  Series)  1893. 

G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York.  $1.50. 

Hale,  Susan.  Mercedes,  a Story  of  Mexico.  1895.  Baptist 
Book  Concern,  Louisville,  Ky.  $1.25. 

Janvier,  Thomas  A.  Legends  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  1911. 

Harper  & Bros.,  New  York.  $1.30. 

Kirkham,  Stanton  D.  Mexican  Travels.  1909.  G.  P.  Put- 
nam’s Sons,  New  York.  $1.75. 

Lumlioltz,  C.  Unknown  Mexico.  2 vols.  1902.  Charles 
Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York.  $12.00. 

Lummis,  C.  F.  The  Awakening  of  a Nation.  1898.  Harper 
& Bros.,  New  York.  $2.50. 

Martin,  P.  F.  Mexico  of  the  Twentieth  Century.  2 vols. 

1907.  Dodd,  Mead  & Co.,  New  York.  $8.50. 

Mexico:  A General  Sketch.  1911.  Pan  American  Union, 
Washington.  $1.00. 

Mitchel,  B.  Cortes,  Montezuma,  and  Mexico.  A.  Flanagan 
Co.,  Chicago.  35  cents. 

Moses,  J.  T.  To-day  in  the  Land  of  To-morrow:  A Study 
in  the  Development  of  Mexico.  1907.  Christian  Woman’s 
Board  of  Missions,  Indianapolis.  50  cents. 

Municipal  Organization  in  Latin  America.  1909.  Pan 
American  Union,  Washington. 

Noll,  A.  H.  From  Empire  to  Republic.  1903.  A.  C. 

McClurg  & Co.,  Chicago.  $1.40. 

Noll,  A.  H.  Short  History  of  Mexico.  1903.  A.  C.  McClurg 
& Co.,  Chicago.  75  cents. 

Noll,  A.  H.,  and  McMahon,  A.  P.  Life  and  Times  of 
Miguel  Hidalgo.  1910.  A.  C.  McClurg  & Co.,  Chicago. 
$1.00. 

Ober,  F.  A.  History  of  Mexico.  Saalfield  Publishing  Co., 
New  York.  $1.00. 

Prescott,  W.  H.  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico.  1909. 
(Everyman’s  Library)  E.  P.  Dutton,  New  York.  2 vols., 
35  cents,  each. 

Rankin,  Melinda.  Twenty  Years  Among  the  Mexicans. 
1881.  (Out  of  print.)  Central  Book  Concern,  Cincin- 
nati. 

Reville,  A.  Native  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  1884. 
Charles  Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York.  $1.50. 


Appendix  E 217 


Romero,  M.  Geographical  and  Statistical  Notes  on  Mexico. 

1898.  G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York.  $2.00. 

Romero,  M.  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  1898.  G.  P. 

Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York.  $4.50. 

Smith,  F.  Hopkinson.  A White  Umbrella  in  Mexico.  1892. 

Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.,  New  York.  $1.50. 

Starr,  Frederick.  In  Indian  Mexico.  1908.  Forbes  & 
Co.,  Chicago.  $5.00. 

Turner,  J.  K.  Barbarous  Mexico.  1911.  Charles  H. 

Kerr  & Co.,  Chicago.  $1150. 

Tweedie,  E.  B.  Porfirio  Diaz,  Seven  Times  President  of 
Mexico.  1906.  John  Lane  Company,  New  York.  $5.00. 
Wallace,  D.  Beyond  the  Mexican  Sierras.  1910.  A.  C. 

McClurg  & Co.,  Chicago.  $2.00. 

Wells,  D.  D.  Study  of  Mexico.  1887.  D.  Appleton  & Co., 
New  York.  $1.00.  Out  of  print. 

Winter,  N.  O.  Mexico  and  Her  People  of  To-day.  1907. 

L.  C.  Page  & Co.,  Boston.  $3.00. 

Winton,  G.  B.  A New  Era  in  Old  Mexico.  1905.  Metho- 
dist Publishing  House,  Nashville.  $1.00. 

Wright,  M.  Picturesque  Mexico.  1897.  George  Barrie  & 
Sons,  Philadelphia.  $10.00. 


Magazine  Articles 

The  list  below  contains  most  of  the  important  articles 
that  have  appeared  in  American  magazines  in  the  English 
language. 


1910 

“ Tramway  and  Power  System  in  Mexico  City,  and  the 
Federal  District.”  C.  E.  Ferguson.  Overland,  July,  1910. 

“American  Invasion  of  Mexico.”  Harper’s  Weekly,  Decem- 
ber 18,  1909. 

“Awakening  of  a Nation.”  P.  M.  Beringer.  Overland, 
July,  1910. 

“Barbarous  Mexico.”  American  Magazine,  December,  1910. 

“ Barbarous  Mexico : The  Rubber  Slavery  of  the  Mexican 
Tropics.”  H.  Whitaker.  American  Magazine,  February, 
1910. 

“ Barbarous  Mexico : Observations  of  Two  Englishmen  upon 
Slavery  in  Yucatan.”  American  Magazine,  April,  1910. 

“ Betrayal  of  a Nation.”  E.  A.  Powell.  American  Maga- 
zine, October,  1910. 

“ A Century  of  Mexican  Independence.”  Outlook,  Septem- 
ber 24,  1910. 


218 


Appendix  E 


“ In  the  Lime  Light  in  Mexico.”  Overland,  July,  1910. 

“ Maligners  of  Mexico.”  A.  H.  Lewis.  Cosmopolitan, 
March,  1910. 

“ Marvelous  Mexico  and  the  Muck  Raker.”  P.  N.  Beringer. 
Overland,  May,  1910. 

“ Mexicans  and  Americans.”  Outlook,  November  26,  1910. 
“ Mexico  of  To-day.”  J.  B.  Frisbie.  Catholic  World,  April, 
1910. 

“Mexico  To-day  and  To-morrow.”  O.  Stevens.  Cosmopoli- 
tan, April,  1910. 

“Rebellious  Mexico.”  Outlook,  December  3,  1910. 

“ Security  of  Investments  in  Mexico.”  T.  K.  Long.  World 
To-day,  June,  1910. 

“ Three  Months  in  Peonage.”  American  Magazine,  March, 
1910. 

“ True  Conditions  Existing  in  Mexico.”  C.  Cebrian.  Over- 
land, September,  1910. 

“ Contest  for  the  Laws  of  Reform  in  Mexico.”  J.  W.  Foster. 

American  Historical  Review,  April,  1910. 

“ Mexico  the  Progressive.”  O.  Stevens.  Cosmopolitan, 
March,  1910. 

“Making  a Fresh  Start.”  P.  N.  Beringer.  Overland,  Julv, 

1910. 

“ Mexico — A Nation  with  a Unique  Problem.”  C.  T.  Crowell. 
November  24,  1910. 

“ Personal  Recollections.”  Porfirio  Diaz.  Cosmopolitan, 
July,  September,  November,  1910. 

“ Porfirio  Diaz — Soldier  and  Statesman.”  P.  F.  Martin. 

Living  Age,  January  1,  1910. 

“ Biggest  Factor  in  Developing  Mexico’s  Industrial  Possi- 
bilities.” C.  E.  Ferguson.  Overland,  August,  1910. 

“ Growth  of  Business  in  Mexico.”  Overland,  July,  1910. 

“ Industrial  Mexico.”  O.  Stevens.  Cosmopolitan,  May,  1910. 
“ Bull-fighting  in  Mexico.”  Mrs.  F.  A.  Hodgson.  Canadian 
Magazine,  March,  1910. 

“Mexico  City’s  New  Waterworks  System.”  R.  H.  Murray. 

Scientific  American,  September  24,  1910. 

“ Organization  of  the  Police  Department  in  the  Federal 
District.”  Overland,  July,  1910. 

1911 

“ Protestant  Christianity  in  Mexico.”  J.  W.  Butler.  Mis- 
sionary Review  of  the  World,  May,  1911. 

“ Religious  Influence  in  Mexico.”  N.  O.  Winter.  Mis- 
sionary Review  of  the  World,  March,  1911. 

“ American  Interest  in  Mexico.”  World’s  Work,  February, 

1911. 


Appendix  E 


219 


“ Cost  of  Public  Lands  in  Mexico.”  Bulletin  of  Pan  Ameri- 
can Union,  January,  1911. 

“Independence  Bell  of  Mexico.”  Scientific  American  Sup- 
plement, February  4,  1911. 

“ The  Mexican  Republic  and  Its  Future.”  Chautauqua, 
August,  1911. 

“ Mexico  After  Diaz.”  S.  Bonsai.  North  American  Maga- 
zine, September,  1911. 

“Mexico  in  1910.”  Maps  illustrating.  Bulletin  of  the 
Pan  American  Union,  July,  1911. 

“Mexico’s  Future.”  C.  T.  Crowell.  Independent,  July  20, 
1911. 

“ Our  Neighbor,  Mexico.”  J.  Birlsinbine.  National  Geo- 
graphic Magazine,  May,  1911. 

“ Rebellion  in  Mexico  Grown  General.”  Current  Literature, 
March,  1911. 

“Reform  in  Mexico.”  Independent,  April  20,  1911. 

“ United  States  and  Mexico : Statistics.”  W.  B.  Bailey. 
Independent,  May  18,  1911. 

“ In  Darkest  Mexico.”  H.  E.  Smith.  Overland,  August, 
1911. 

“ Mexican  Transportation  Scenes.”  W.  W.  Bradley.  Na- 
tional Geographic  Magazine,  December,  1910. 

“ Notes  on  Southern  Mexico.”  G.  N.  Collins  and  C.  B. 
Doyle.  Map  illustrating.  National  Geographic  Magazine, 
March,  1911. 

“ Our  Government’s  Mexican  Policy.”  Independent,  June  15, 
1911. 

“ Grievances  of  the  Mexican  Insurrectos.”  Independent, 
April  27,  1911. 

“Mexico  and  Its  Maker.”  World’s  Work,  June,  1911. 

“ Mystery  of  Mexico.”  W.  B.  Northrop.  Hampton-Colum- 
bian  Magazine,  June,  1911. 

“ Underlying  Causes  of  Mexican  Insurrection.”  J.  Creel- 
man.  North  American  Magazine,  April,  1911. 

“ The  Book  that  Threw  Mexico  into  Revolution.”  World 
To-day,  June,  1911. 

“ Meaning  of  the  Revolution.”  F.  Palmer.  Collier’s,  May 
27,  1911. 

“Mexico  and  the  United  States.”  Outlook,  March  25,  1911. 

“ The  United  States  and  Mexico  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine.” 
Outlook,  March  25,  1911. 

“ Agricultural  Possibilities  in  Tropical  Mexico.”  P.  Olsson- 
Seffer.  National  Geographic  Magazine,  December,  1910. 

“ Hooked : Men  Who  Do  the  Hard  Work  in  Mexico.”  A. 
Ruhl.  Outlook,  August  26,  1911. 

“ Remarkable  American  Forest  Railway  Industrial  Road  in 


220  Appendix  E 

Michoacan.”  A.  Reiche.  Scientific  American  Supplement, 
January  28,  1911. 

“ Christian  Opportunities  in  Mexico.”  L.  E.  Troyer.  Mis- 
sionary Review  of  the  World,  March,  1911. 

1912 

“ Situation  in  Mexico,  1912.”  J.  A.  Avirette.  Collier’s, 
January  27,  1912. 

“.Commerce  of  Mexico  for  1911.”  Bulletin  of  Pan  American 
Union,  July,  1912. 

“Winter  Festivals  of  Mexico:  A Christmas  that  Combines 
Aztec  and  Christian  Legends.”  W.  Weber.  Craftsman, 
December,  1912. 

“ Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Mexico  Centennial.” 
H.  H.  Cummings.  National  Education  Association,  1911. 
“ Avowal  of  Mexican  Hostility.”  Literary  Digest,  September 
28,  1912. 

“Mexico  and  the  United  States.”  Outlook,  March  23,  1912. 
“Warning  Mexico.”  Literary  Digest,  April  27,  1912. 
“Warning  to  Mexico.”  Outlook,  April  27,  1912. 

“ Situation  in  Mexico.”  D.  Butterfield.  North  American, 
November,  1912. 

“ Bandit-governed  Mexico.”  R.  Barry.  Map  illustrating. 
World  To-day,  January,  1912. 

“ Civil  War  in  Mexico.”  Current  Literature,  October,  1912. 
“ The  Issue  in  Mexico.”  Outlook,  May  4,  1912. 

“Mexican  Revolution.”  Review  of  Reviews,  July,  1912. 
“Mexican  Revolution:  Its  Causes  and  Consequences.”  L.  S. 

Rowe.  Political  Science  Magazine,  June,  1912. 

“ New  Government  Needed.”  E.  T.  Simondetti.  World 
To-day,  January,  1912. 

“ Our  Duty  in  Mexican  Disorder.”  Literary  Digest,  Septem- 
ber 21,  1912. 

“ Mining  in  Mexico.”  T.  L.  Carter.  Map  illustrating. 

Engineering  Magazine,  March,  1912. 

“ Waking  up  a Nation  with  Water.”  E.  A.  Powell.  Tech- 
nical World  Magazine,  November,  1912. 

“Disruption  of  Mexico.”  E.  H.  Talbot.  Harper’s  Weekly, 
October  19,  1912. 

“The  Hopeful  Side  in  Mexico.”  World’s  Work,  May,  1912. 
“ The  Menace  of  Mexico.”  J.  C.  Welliver.  Technical  World, 
December,  1912. 

“ Peon  and  the  Political  Situation  in  Mexico.”  Review  of 
Reviews,  August,  1912. 

“ Prospect  for  Mexico.”  C.  H.  Forbes-Lindsay.  Lippincott’s 
Magazine,  October,  1912. 


Appendix  E 


221 


“The  Situation  in  Mexico.”  D.  Butterfield.  North  Amer- 
ican Magazine,  November,  1912. 

“ Washington’s  Statue  in  the  City  of  Mexico.”  Bulletin  of 
Pan  American  Union,  March,  1912. 

“ New  Cattle  Country.”  F.  W.  Robinson.  Scribner’s  Maga- 
zine, February,  1912. 

“Unruly  Mexico.”  Literary  Digest,  February  17,  1912. 

“ Serious  Nature  of  the  Mexican  Crisis.”  Current  Litera- 
ture, May,  1912. 

“Mexico’s  Trouble  Maker:  Zapata.”  J.  A.  Avirette.  Col- 
lier’s, February  24,  1912. 

“ Zapata — The  Mexican  Attila.”  R.  Barry.  Harper’s 
Weekly,  January  20,  1912. 

1913 

“ The  Mexican  Chaos : A Poll  of  the  Press.”  Outlook, 
March  1,  1913. 

“Personal  Side  of  Madero.”  Preston  S.  Krecker.  Outlook, 
March  15,  1913. 

“Upheaval  in  Mexico.”  Assembly  Herald,  April,  1913. 

“ Political  and  Missionary  Interests  in  Mexico.”  Mission- 
ary Review  of  the  World,  May,  1913. 

“ Unrest  in  Unhappy  Mexico.”  Missionary  Review  of  the 
World,  March,  1913. 

“Mexican  Diplomacy  on  the  Eve  of  War  with  the  United 
State.”  G.  L.  Rives.  American  Historical  Review,  Jan- 
uary, 1913. 

“ Is  the  Mexican  Situation  Too  Dangerous  ? ” Current 
Opinion,  February,  1913. 

“ Black  Week  in  Mexico.”  Independent,  February  27,  1913. 

“Downfall  and  Death  of  Madero.”  Outlook,  March  1,  1913. 

“ Evil  Genius  of  the  Madero  Regime.”  Literary  Digest, 
March  1,  1913. 

“ Fighting  in  Mexico’s  Capital.”  Outlook,  February  22, 
1913. 

“ For  Peace  in  Mexico.”  Independent,  February  20,  1913. 

“ Mexican  Press  on  Madero’s  Failure.”  Literary  Digest, 
March  1,  1913. 

“ Mexico  and  Intervention.”  Outlook,  February  22,  1913. 

“ Mexico’s  New  Leadership.”  Literary  Digest,  March  1, 
1913. 

“Our  Duty  to  Mexico.”  Nation,  February  27,  1913. 

“ Our  Mexican  Duty.”  Literary  Digest,  February  22,  1913. 

“Unhappy  Mexico.”  Independent,  February  27,  1913. 

“ University  Education  in  Mexico.”  E.  E.  Brandon.  Bul- 
letin of  Pan  American  Union,  January,  1913. 


222  Appendix  E 


“Mexican  People.”  E.  L.  C.  Morse.  Nation,  March  20, 
1913. 

“ Mexico’s  Brighter  Side.”  Literary  Digest,  March  15,  1913. 

“ Battle  of  Mexico  City.”  Current  Opinion,  March,  1913. 

“ Death  of  Madero — End  of  His  Regime.”  Review  of  Re- 
views, April,  1913. 

“ Iron  Hand  in  Mexico.”  Literary  Digest,  March  8,  1913. 

“ Mexican  Fear  of  Intervention.”  Literary  Digest,  March 
22,  1913. 

“ Mexico  and  the  United  States.”  Living  Age,  April  5,  1913. 

“Mexico:  the  Rule  of  Huerta.”  Outlook,  March  8,  1913. 

“Religious  Conditions  in  Mexico.”  Outlook,  March  8,  1913. 

“ American  Capital  in  Mexico.”  Current  Opinion,  April, 
1913. 

“ Mexico  in  Trouble.”  E.  H.  Blichfeldt.  Chautauquan, 
April,  1913. 


APPENDIX  F 

Statistics  of  Protestant  Missions  in  Mexico,  1913 


AMERICAN  SOCIETIES 

Year  of  First  Work 
in  Field 

1 Year  Included  in 

Report 

Foreign  Missionaries 

O 

O 

> 

aJ 

Stations 

Native  Constit- 
uency 

Educational 

Sunday 

Schools 

Industrial 

Schools 

Medical 

p 

'3  ® 
OC 
* 
□ 

'a  o 
.5  ® 

|a 

O 

C 

tX 

o.22 

T3  p 

O)  o 
,5  S 

oj .— 

•2S 

O 

P 

P 

Foreign  Mission- 
aries’ Wives 

Other  Foreign 
Missionary  Women 

Total  of  Foreign 
Missionaries 

Stations 

P 

O 

3 

6 

'5 

D 

a 

a ® 

o c 
«>  ° 
flS 

Adherents  not  yet 
Communicants 

Day 

Schools 

Number  of  Pupils 
in  Schools 

c8 

P 

O 

i§ 

= zz 

■O  3 

4>  P 
•Ci-i 

5 

Number  of  Students 
Enrolled 

Sunday  Schools 

Number  of  Sunday 
School  Scholars 

Industrial  Schools 

Number  of 
Students 

Male  Physicians 

P 

'o 

A 

Ph 

_4> 

■cS 

a 

£ 

Hospitals 

XI 

<u 

h 

2 

p 

£• 

S 

Nnmber  of  Patients 
for  Year  Reported 

American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society 

1861 

1912-13 

5 

1 

5 

ii 

26 

18 

28 

1,238 

3 

i 

12 

47 

1,624 

i 

i 

6,000 

American  Bible  Society1 

1878 

1912 

1 

i 

2 

32 

1 

12 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For.  Miss.. . . 

1872 

1911 

3 

1 

4 

6 

14 

24 

4 

52 

1,156 

2,261 

5 

547 

i 

98 

20 

901 

American  Friends’  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 

1870 

1911-12 

4 

3 

7 

14 

33 

3 

9 

710 

1,230 

5 

511 

4 

655 

9 

445 

i 

Board  of  For.  Miss.,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church . . 

1873 

1912 

20 

38 

10 

12 

80 

179 

5 

54 

7,127 

14,391 

66 

4,618 

6 

212 

98 

4,709 

i 

i 

241 

Board  of  For.  Miss.,  Presbyterian  Church  in  U.S.A. 

1872 

1912-13 

7 

1 

7 

5 

20 

111 

8 

77 

3,961 

2,714 

20 

744 

5 

24 

68 

2,591 

i 

Board  of  Miss.,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South2 

1872 

1912 

15 

1 

14 

29 

59 

42 

13 

145 

7,390 

11 

4,164 

101 

5,105 

i 

Christian  Woman’s  Board  of  Missions 

1895 

1911-12 

3 

3 

5 

11 

35 

3 

21 

677 

6 

645 

16 

517 

i 

Dorn,  and  For.  Miss.  Soc.,  Protestant  Episcopal  Ch. 

1870 

1911 

11 

13 

6 

8 

38 

52 

6 

52 

1,114 

8 

333 

2 

57 

23 

403 

i 

Exec.  Com  of  For.  Miss.,  Presbyterian  Ch.  (South) 

1874 

191218 

4 

1 

4 

4 

13 

37 

6 

42 

1,021 

1,850 

15 

700 

21 

890 

i 

23 

For.  Dept  . International  Committee,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  . 

1902 

1912 

6 

5 

3 

3 

3 

6,000 

Foreign  Miss.  Board,  Southern  Baptist  Convention . 

188< 

1912-13 

14 

14 

6 

34 

39 

10 

96 

2,087 

8 

253 

6 

404 

48 

1,442 

i 

i 

1 

i 

1,644 

Qcn.  Miss.  Board,  Pentecostal  Ch.  of  the  Nazarene3. 

1906 

4 

5 

2 

12 

4 

3 

i 

Hephzibuh  Faith  Missionary  Association3 

1908 

1 

1 

2 

1 

Peniel  Missionary  Society 

1916 

1912 

1 

1 

Seventh-Day  Adventist  Mission  Board 

1893 

1 

12 

2 

o 

21 

3 

1 

Woman's  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society.. 

1885 

1912-13 

24 

21 

5 

4 

475 

Total,  17  Societies 

93 

75 

82 

112 

331 

634 

91 

588 

26,481 

22,446 

143 

14,826 

36 

5,526 

454 

18,627 

3 

23 

9 

2 

3 

2 

7,885 

1 Bibles  circulated  since  1878,  810,560. 

9 Statistics  did  not  designate  ordained  and  nnordained  males,  nor  married  and  single  women, 
9 Statistics  from  World  Atlas  of  Christian  Missions,  1910. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


(The  pronunciation  of  Mexican  names  and  words  in  the  index  calls  for 
the  use  chiefly  of  four  vowel  sounds,  as  follows  : = a as  in  ah  ; 5 = a as  in 

ale  and  represents  sound  of  e ; 6 and  ee  = sound  of  e as  in  equip  and  repre- 
sent sound  of  i ; oo  = sound  of  oo  in  too,  and  represents  sound  of  u.  Of 
the  consonants  j often  has  the  sound  of  A,  and  z the  sound  of  th  in  tAin 
or  s in  a ay,  the  exceptions  being  where  the  words  are  Anglicized  in  whole 
or  in  part.) 


A 

Acapulco  (A-ka-pool'-ko),  5 
Administrative  change,  fre- 
quency of,  43 

Altamirano,  Ignacio  ( Al- 
ta-me-ra'-no,  Eeg-na'- 
the-o) , 27 

Altitudes,  Mexico’s,  3;  ef- 
fect on  nerves,  6 
Alvarado,  Pedro  de  ( Al-vd- 
ra'-do,  Pa'-dro  da),  32 
American  adventurers  in 
Mexico,  170 

American  Bible  Society, 
180,  195 

American  Civil  War,  re- 
ferred to,  49,  176,  181 
American  Missions  in  Mex- 
ico, 181 

Ancestry  problems,  cliff- 
dwellers,  19;  Japanese,  20 
Ancient  civilization,  evi- 
dences of,  32 
Animal  life,  10,  11 
Anti-Americanism,  171 
Area  and  population,  211, 
212 

Arizona,  19,  45 
Army  conditions,  61,  63,  64, 
70,  71 

Asiatic  characteristics,  2 
Associated  Reformed  Pres- 
byterian Church,  183 


Atmosphere  and  scenery,  9 
Audiencia  ( Aw-de-en'-se-a) , 
the,  37 

Augustinians,  90 
Auricular  confession,  131 
Authority  of  the  priests,  re- 
sults of,  96,  98,  99 
Awakening  people,  58 
Azores  Islands  the  bound- 
ary, 81 
Aztecs,  18 

B 

Baptisms  by  early  mission- 
aries, 84 

Baptist  medical  work  in 
Guadalajara,  187 ; mis- 
sion beginnings,  182 
Barca,  Mme.  Calderon  de  la, 
94;  quoted,  105-110 
Bazaine,  Gen.  F.  A.,  176 
Beans  or  frijoles,  8,  9 
Bee  culture,  41 
Bible,  distribution,  180;  in- 
fluence of,  179,  194,  195; 
study  in  clubs,  178;  un- 
known to  priests,  98;  ver- 
sions in  use,  195 
Bible  Societies’  work,  195, 
196 

Birds,  11 

Blanket,  one  use  of  the,  129 
Blond  type,  Toltecs,  77 


228 


Index 


Boys’  schools,  190,  212 
Brazil,  81 

Brigandage,  condoned,  66 ; 

temptations  to,  65,  71 
British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  180 

Business  attitude  and 

motto,  127 

Butler,  John  W.,  quoted,  174 
C 

Cactus,  9,  10 
California,  44,  45 
Cannibalism  as  a religious 
rite,  79 

Carlotta,  Empress,  47,  50 
Carranza  (Kdr-ran'-tha), 

Gov.,  71 

Cash  booties  for  brigands, 
65,  66 

Catholic  Church  hostile  to 
popular  government,  43, 
59 

Catholic  faith,  Indians  con- 
verts to,  21 

Catholic  school  standards 
improve,  189 

Catholicism,  developments 
in,  92 

Catholics  in  Mexico  finally 
favored  revolt  against 
Spain,  144 

Catone  ( Cii-to'-na ) district, 
2 

Cause  of  improvement  in 
school  standards,  189 
Celibate  priesthood,  131 
Censorship  of  the  press, 
160 

Central  plateau  region  of 
Mexico,  5-11 

Century  plant,  uses  of,  10 
Chapel  in  Mexico  City, 
grant  of  a,  178 
Charles  V perpetuates  pe- 
onage system,  120 


Chihuahua  ( Che-hoo'-a-hoo'- 
a),  state,  2 

Christian  layman,  the  use- 
ful, 197,  198;  martyrs, 
199 

Christ.  See  Jesus  Christ. 
Christs  many  in  Mexican  be- 
lief, 104,  105 

Church  and  crown  allied, 
148 

Church,  influence,  59,  60; 
distrusted  in  public  af- 
fairs, 61 

Civil  war,  the  American,  49, 
176,  181 

Classes  reached  by  Prot- 
estant missionaries,  183, 
184 

Cliff  dwellers  referred  to,  19 
Climate,  coast  and  inland, 
3,  4 

Coaberi  ( Ko-a-ba'-re ) , 79 
Coahuila  ( Ko-a-we'-la ) , 
state,  43,  71 
Coast-line  and  harbors,  5 
Coat  of  arms  of  Mexico  City, 
18 

Coaxalcoatl  ( Ko-ax-iil-ko'- 
atl),  79 

Coeducation  not  practicable, 
188 

Colegio  de  San  Nicolas  (Co- 
la'-je-o  da  San  Ne'-ko-las), 
America’s  oldest  college, 
40 

Colima  (Ko-le'-ma),  active 
volcano,  12 

Colonists,  early  Spanish,  27 
Comonfort,  Ignacio  ( Ko- 
mon-fort',  Eeg-nii'-the-o), 
46 

Congregationalists,  183;  the- 
ological school,  191 
Conquest  of  Mexico,  32,  34 
Consolations  of  spiritual  re- 
ligion, needed,  198;  val- 
ued, 199 


Index 


229 


Constitution  of  1824,  42-45; 

of  1857,  45,  46,  56,  175 
Constitution  of  United 
States  used  as  basis,  42, 
45,  147 

Convent  training,  134 
Cortez,  Hernando  (Kor'-tez, 
Her-nan'-do ) , 32,  34,  42, 
88 

Courting,  134 

Cooperation  and  organiza- 
tion, denominational,  156, 
157,  204;  good  effects  of, 
159;  in  church  work,  184 
Corn  and  peppers  the  popu- 
lar food,  8,  9 
Creoles,  13,  14 
Crowbar,  a concealed,  130 
Crucifix  forms  familiar,  80 
Cuauhtemoc  ( Coo-aw'-ta- 
mok),  last  Aztec  emperor, 
36 

Cuernavaca  ( Kwer-na-va'- 
ca),  Madero’s  ride  to,  70 

D 

Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, influence  of  our, 
143 

Degrading  poverty,  121 
Deities  of  early  times,  75; 

favorite  gods,  79 
Diaz,  Porfirio  (De'-az  Por- 
fe'-re-o),  2,  51,  53,  54,  59- 
62,  68,  120,  152 
Diaz,  Mrs.  Porfirio,  59 
Diego,  Juan  (De-a'-go,  Hoo- 
an'),  vision  seen  by,  108 
Distinguished  natives,  22 
Doctrines  accepted  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  92 
Dolores  ( Do-lo'-res ) , 40 
Dominicans,  90 
Domenech  ( Do-ma'-nach ) , 
Abb6,  on  idolatrous  Ca- 
tholicism, 85 


E 

Earliest  stone  work  remains, 
19 

Early  “conversions,”  119 
Earthquakes,  12 
Education  and  the  Church, 
116,  117 

Education  in  mission  work, 
149,  168,  187-192 
Educational  ideals  and  in- 
fluence in  the  state,  148, 
149,  150,  166-168;  full 

statistics  lacking,  166; 
some  given,  212,  213 
Egypt,  30 

El  Paso,  Texas,  incident  in, 
169 

Elements  in  national  awak- 
ening, 151-161 

Endowments,  school,  191; 

openings  for,  192 
English  language,  spread  of, 
165 

Escobedo  ( As-ko-ba'-do ) , 
Gen.,  50 

Evil  effects  of  privilege,  91; 

of  wealth,  90 
Export,  articles  of,  12,  13 

F 

“ Fair  God,”  the,  76 
Farias,  Gomez  ( Fii-re'-as, 
Go'-math),  91 
Fiber  plants,  10,  12 
Firearms  and  revolutions, 
70 

Forecast  for  mission  work, 
202-206 

Foreign  capital  and  for- 
eigners, 151,  152 
Foreigners  protected  under 
Diaz,  55 
France,  2 
Franciscans,  90 
Freedom,  meaning  of,  145 


230 


Index 


Freedom  of  worship,  55 
French  intervention,  175, 
176 

French  revolution,  influence 
of,  14,  31,  44 

G 

Oachupin  (Ga-choo'-peen), 
(nickname  for  Spaniard;, 
15 

Gods  and  saints,  74 
Gods,  favorite,  and  their 
worship,  75-77 

Gold,  output,  11;  invites  in- 
vasion, 35 

Gonzalez,  Manuel  (Gon-za'- 
laz,  Man'-yoo-al ) , 53 
Goodrich,  Joseph  King, 
quoted,  2,  32,  142 
Gospel  message  needed,  138; 
valued,  199 

Governments  of  United 
States  and  Mexico  friend- 
ly, 171 

Guadalajara  (Gwa-da-lii-ja'- 
ra).  Baptists  at  work  in, 
187 ; Congregational  the- 
ological school  in,  191 
“Guadalupe  (Gwa-da-loo'- 
pa).  Holy  Mother  of,” 
100;  fable,  and  reasons 
for  it,  109,  110 
Guana  j uato  ( Gwfi-na- j oo-a'- 
to),  city,  Methodist  Epis- 
copal medical  work,  187 ; 
state,  2,  40 

H 

Handicapped  preacher,  the, 
192 

Harbors,  5 

Haughwout,  Lefford,  M.  A., 
quoted,  114 

Hidalgo,  Miguel  (He-dal'-go, 
Me-gal' ) , 40,  41,  107 
Highwayman’s  popularity, 
the,  66 


Holy  week  observance,  97 
Honor  of  business  men,  126 
Hospitals,  187 
Household  saint,  the,  102 
Huerta  (Wer'-ta),  Presi- 
dent, 71,  72,  168 
Huitzilopochtli  (Wet-se-lo- 
poch'-tle),  79 
Human  sacrifices,  79,  80 
Humboldt,  Baron  von, 
quoted,  84,  94 

I 

Ignorance,  of  Mexican 
priests,  98;  of  the  peon, 
116;  some  consequences, 
118 

Illiteracy  diminishing,  160, 
162,  168;  once  the  rule, 
117 

Indians,  13-29;  language, 
17 

Indigenas  (Een-de'-jan-as), 
the,  13,  27 

Industrial  and  political 
evils  resulting  from  igno- 
rance, 119-122 
Industrialism,  the  new,  ISO- 
154 

Industry,  213 
Insect  pests,  4 
Intolerance  of  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  95,  181 
Iron  and  steel,  scarcity  of, 
129 

Irrigation  difficulties,  7;  re- 
mains of  system  in  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico,  19 
Ixtle  fiber,  12 
Iturbide  (Ee-toor'-be-da), 
G.  M.,  42 

J 

Jalisco  (Ha-lees'-ko),  an- 
cient Toltec  land,  19 
Jesuits,  the,  59,  60 


Index 


231 


Jesus  Christ,  138,  139,  193, 
199,  200 

Juarez,  Benito  (Joo-a'-rgz, 
Ba-ne'-to),  23,  46,  49,  50, 
51,  91,  177,  182;  quoted 
on  Protestantism,  177 
Juarez,  Sosthenes  (Joo-a'- 
rez,  Sos-tba'-nes ) , use 

made  of  a Bible  by,  178, 
179 

Justice,  courts  of,  213 
L 

Labor  conditions,  153,  155 
Lake  Patzcuaro  (Pats-kwa'- 
ro),  165 

Land  tenure  problems,  2,  57, 
58,  66;  Madero  and  the, 
69,  71 

Language,  English,  165; 
Spanish,  2 

Las  Casas  (Las  Ca'-sas),  93 
“Laws  of  Reform,”  175 
Lead,  11 
Lee,  Gen.,  181 

Lerdo,  Miguel  (Ler'-do  Me- 
gal'),  91 

Lerdo,  Don  Sebastian  de  Te- 
jada (Ta'-ja-da),  51,  53 
Lexicon  and  History  pre- 
pared by  Padre  Sahagun, 
17,  22 

Liberty  of  the  press,  160 
Life  in  Mexico,  1842,  94 
Limantour  ( Leem-an-toor' ) , 
Mr.,  63 
Limestone,  12 
Local  Government,  210 
Louis  Napoleon,  47-49 
Lower  California,  2 
Lying,  tendency  toward,  123, 
125 

M 

Machete  ( ma-cha'-ta ) , the, 
129 


Madero  (Ma-da'-ro),  Presi- 
dent, 2,  61 ; and  the  land 
problem,  68,  69,  71,  170; 
difficulty  in  government, 

187 

Maguey,  the,  10 
Marriage  conditions,  114, 
131,  132 

Martyrs,  Christian,  199 
Material  religion,  a,  122 
Maximilian,  47-50,  175,  176 
Maya  (Ma'-ya),  deities,  76 
Mazatlan  (Maz-at-lan'),  5 
Medical  mission  work,  187 
Mendoza,  Antonia  de  (Men- 
do'-tha,  An-to'-ne-a  da),  36 
Mesquit  tree,  the  vision  in 
a,  103 

Mestizos,  the,  23,  24 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
the,  183;  theological 
school,  191 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  183 

Mexican  ministers,  native, 
182 

Mexico,  as  a summer  resort, 
5;  conquest  of,  32;  free- 
dom for,  145-147 ; sum- 
mary of  conditions  in,  29, 
30 

Mexico  as  It  Is,  quoted,  85, 
86 

Mexico  City,  6,  18,  19,  34, 
191;  coat  of  arms,  18;  in- 
surrection in,  70 
Mexico,  Gulf  of,  4 
Mexico,  valley  of,  16 
Middle  class,  a coming,  186 
Migrations,  early  tradition- 
al, 19 

Minerals,  11,  12 
Mines  and  yields,  2 
Miraculous  cures  and  res- 
cues, 101 

Mission  schools  for  girls, 

188 


232 


Index 


Mission  work:  educational, 
evangelical,  medical,  187 
Modern  ways  being  learned, 
156 

Mohaves,  20 
Monroe  doctrine,  49 
Monterey,  5,  44;  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South, 
at  work  in,  187 
Montezuma,  18,  33,  35 
Moral  evils  resulting  from 
ignorance,  24,  115,  122 
Moral,  inheritances,  24,  115; 
stiffening  and  Protestant- 
ism, 20 

Morals  and  religion,  96,  119 
Morelia  (Mo-ra'-le-ii),  40 
Morelos  (M5-ra'-los),  state, 
2 

Mules  draw  railway  trams, 

152 

Music,  interesting  type  of, 
194 

N 

Napoleon  I and  Spain,  144 
National  traits,  158 
Native,  Mexican,  21-23; 

ministers,  182 
Natives  ignored  in  Pope’s 
boundary  line,  81 
Navajos  (Na'-va-hos),  20 
Nerves  and  altitude,  6 
New  Mexico,  19,  45 
New  trades  enter  Mexico, 

153 

O 

Old  customs,  155;  in  wor- 
ship, 86,  87 
Onyx,  12 

Open-air  service  forbidden, 
192 

Orders,  the  religious,  ban- 
ished, 91,  92;  growth  of, 
89 


Oriental  type  seen  in  native 
Mexicans,  2 

Orient,  little  traffic  with  the, 
5 

Orozco  (O-ros'-ko),  Gen.,  64 
P 

Pacific,  Coast,  19;  Ocean,  4, 
57 

Patriots,  41,  42,  48,  146 
Peonage,  58,  119,  120 
Peons,  24,  28 
People  of  Mexico,  13-25 
Peppers  a staple  product,  9 
Philip  IV  petitioned  in  re- 
gard to  the  Orders  in  New 
Spain,  89,  90 
Pilfering,  128,  129 
Plant  life,  9,  10 
Policies  of  Diaz,  54,  56 
Politeness  and  lying,  124, 
125 

Political  evils  resulting  from 
ignorance,  119-122 
Political  revolution,  143 
Politics  assists  the  gospel, 
201 

Pope,  Alexander  VI,  81,  82; 

Julius  II,  82 
Potatoes,  8 * 

Pratt,  Dr.  H.  B.,  195 
Preaching,  a lost  art  in 
Catholic  Church,  96,  97 ; 
difficulties  attending  evan- 
gelistic, 192,  193 
Prejudice  against  haste  on 
railroads,  152 

Presbyterian,  Church  work, 
182;  theological  seminary, 
191 

Presbyterian  Church,  South, 
183 

Press,  the  Mexican,  160-163 
Priests,  bad  example  of,  98, 
123 

Printing  and  freedom,  144 


Index  233 


Problem,  a missionary,  197 
Production,  213 
Products,  indigenous,  8 
Promises,  futile,  126 
Property  regulations,  the 
new,  175;  purchase  in 
Mexico  City,  178 
“ Protest  ” required  against 
Catholic  doctrines,  96 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
Mission,  182 

Protestant  progress,  one 
cause  of,  137 

Protestantism  advocated  by 
public  men,  177,  182 
Public  opinion,  a new,  169 
Public  schools,  136,  149,  167, 
168 

Puebla,  52;  training  school 
at,  191 

Puntilla,  the,  129 
“Puppy,”  166 

Pyramids,  Toltec,  77;  astro- 
nomical adjustment,  78; 
compared  with  Cheops,  78 

Q 

Quergtaro  ( Ka-ra'-ta-ro ) , 
40,  41 

Quetzal  coatl  (Ket-sal-ko'- 
atl),  Toltec  god,  76 
Quicksilver,  11 
Quintana  Roo  (Keen-tii'-n& 
Roo),  territory,  2 

R 

Racial  conditions,  13-15 
Railroads,  12,  55,  151,  152; 
construction  camps,  153; 
tools  purloined,  129,  130 
Rainfall,  6 

Rankin,  Miss  Melinda,  180, 
182 

Recollections  of  Mexico, 
mo,  94 

Records,  native,  destroyed  by 
conquerors,  16 


“Reform  Laws,”  46,  175- 
177,  192 

Reformation,  the,  and  the 
individual,  144 
Religion,  statistics  of,  212, 
213 

Republic  proclaimed,  42, 
146,  176 

Republican  ideals,  39,  40 
Revolution,  41,  42;  of  1911, 
61,  187 ; damage  caused 
by,  169 

Reyes,  Gen.,  169 
Riley,  H.  C.,  in  Mexico  City, 
182 

Rio  Grande,  river  and  val- 
ley, 5,  44 

Ritual,  drawbacks  of,  123 
Rival  Virgins,  105-110 
Roman  Catholic  Church  be- 
ing vitalized,  201;  privi- 
leges granted  to,  175 
Ross,  Prof.,  referred  to,  115 

S 

Sahagun,  Padre,  17,  18,  22 
Saints’  days  and  names,  101 
San  Bias  (San  Bias),  an- 
cient Toltec  land,  19 
San  Francisco,  monastery 
of,  purchased,  178 
San  Juan  Teotihuacan  (San 
Hoo-an'  Ta-o-te-wa-kan' ) , 
pyramids  at,  77 
San  Luis  Potosi  (San  Loo- 
ees'  Po-to-se'),  city,  191; 
state,  2 

Santa  Anna  ( San'-ta  An'-na ) , 
Gen.,  43,  45,  52 
Scanty  records  of  the  past, 
78 

Scenery,  9 

Schools  desired,  149;  en- 
dowments needed,  191, 
192 

Secular  clergy,  92 


234 


Index 


Self-respect,  201 
Self-supporting  congrega- 
tions, 204 

Sequestration  and  sale  of 
church  property,  176,  177 
Sermons  in  Holy  Week,  97 
Servility  a trait,  124 
Sierra  Madre  ( Se-er'-ra  Mii'- 
dra),  ranges,  3 
Silk-worm  culture,  41 
Silver  output,  11 
Singing  attracts  to  church 
and  school,  193 
Sisal  hemp,  2 
Smelting  plants,  12 
Snow  line,  the,  8 
Social  grades,  13 
Society  of  Friends,  182 
Songs  of  the  people,  194 
Southern  Baptist  Church, 
183 

Southern  sympathizers  in 
Mexico,  181 

Spanish  missionary  work, 
81,  83,  84;  later,  88; 
mixed  with  political  treat- 
ment, 89 

Spanish  stock,  25,  26,  28 
Spike  stealing,  130 
Spiritual  religion  needed,  a, 
122 

Statistics  of  Protestant  mis- 
sions, 183,  223 
Stealing  and  servility,  127, 
128 

Stock-raising,  13 
Suarez  (Swii'-rath),  Vice- 
president,  71 

Superstitions,  74 ; idola- 
trous, retained  in  worship, 
84,  85;  fostered  by  Cath- 
olic Church,  100,  101 
Syndicates,  land  held  by,  67 

T 

Tampico  (Tam-pe'-ko),  5 


Tarasco  (Ta-ras'-ko),  In- 
dians, 165 

Taxation  problem,  57,  59, 
67,  71 

Teachers’  Normal  Course, 
189 

Telegraph,  the,  163 
Telephone,  the,  163 
Tenochtitlan  ( Ta-noch-tit- 
lan' ) , 34 
Teocallis,  77,  79 
Terrazas  ( Ter-ra'-thils ) , 
family,  2 

Testimony,  Christian  death- 
bed, 200 
Texas,  43,  44 

Texcoco  (TSx-ko'-ko),  lake, 
35 

Theological  schools,  191 
Thieves’  market  in  Mexico 
City,  128 

Thompson,  Hon.  Waddy,  94 
Timber,  wealth  in,  68 
Title  granted  to  Spain  by 
Pope  Alexander  VI,  82 
Tlascala  (Tlas-ka'-la) , 34 
Tobacco,  8,  12 

Tollan,  or  Tula,  ancient  city, 
76 

Toltec,  civilization,  18;  re- 
ligion, 76,  78;  worship,  79 
Toluca  (To-loo'-ka),  6 
Tomatoes,  8 
Topography,  3,  4 
Tortillas,  8;  making  of,  135 
Travel  by  train  a mania, 
153 

Tribal  achievements  and  his- 
tory, 15,  17,  18 
Troyer,  L.  E.,  quoted,  174 
Turner,  John  Kenneth, 
quoted,  2,  114 

U 

Unchanging  Rome,  110 
United  States,  2,  15,  23,  42- 


Index  235 


46,  49,  170-172,  180,  181; 
war  with,  43-45,  171 

V 

Valera  Bible,  the,  195 
Valladolid  (Val-la-d6-lid'), 
40 

Vanderbilt,  YV.  E.,  quoted, 
142 

Vegetation,  9,  10 
Verdia,  Perez,  Historia  de 
Mexico,  89 

Vera  Cruz,  5,  35,  44 
Veta  Madre  (Va'-ta  Ma'- 
dra),  lode,  2 
Vice  and  sin,  115 
Viceroys,  days  of  the,  36 
Village  communes,  67 
Virgin  Mary,  worship  of,  87 
Volcanoes,  12 

Volunteers,  native,  for  the 
ministry,  196,  197 
Voters,  56 

W 

Wallace,  William,  quoted,  2 
War  god,  the,  and  his  wor- 
ship, 79 

Wedding  fees,  132 
What  freedom  means,  145 
Winter,  absence  of,  6 


Winter,  Nevin  0.,  quoted, 
74 

Woman  in  Mexico,  130-136 

Workers  needed  in  mission 
and  school  work,  205 

World-community,  Mexico 
in  the,  164 

Worship,  old  customs  in,  86, 
87 

Y 

York  rite  of  masonry,  177 

Young  America  in  Mexico, 
155 

Yucatan,  2 

Yucca,  plant  and  fiber,  9,  10 
Z 

Zacatecas  ( Za-ka-te'-kas ) , 
city,  6;  state,  2 

Zapata  (Sa-pa'-ta),  Gen., 
64,  71 

Zapatist  revolution,  2 

Zaragoza  ( Sa-ra-go'-tha ) , 
Gen.,  52 

Zuloaga  ( Soo-lo-li'-ga ) , 
Gen.,  46 

Zumarraga,  Juan  de  (Soo- 
mar-ra'-ga,  Hoo-an'  da), 
108 

Zuni,  20 


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-• 


Forward  Mission  Study  Courses 


“ Anywhere,  provided  it  be  forward.” — David  Livingstone. 


Prepared  under  the  direction  of  the 
MISSIONARY  EDUCATION  MOVEMENT 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA 


Editorial  Committee:  T.  H.  P.  Sailer,  Chairman-,  A.  E. 
Armstrong,  T.  B.  Ray,  C.  L.  White,  J.  E.  McAfee,  A.  R. 
Gray,  G.  F.  Sutherland,  H.  P.  Douglass,  W.  E.  Doughty, 
W.  W.  Cleland,  J.  H.  Poorman. 


The  Forward  Mission  Study  Courses  are  an  outgrowth  of  a 
conference  of  leaders  in  young  people’s  mission  work,  held  in 
New  York  City,  December,  1901.  To  meet  the  need  that  was 
manifested  at  that  conference  for  mission  study  text-books  suit- 
able for  young  people,  two  of  the  delegates,  Professor  Amos 
R.  Wells,  of  the  United  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  and 
Mr.  S.  Earl  Taylor,  Chairman  of  the  General  Missionary  Com- 
mittee of  the  Epworth  League,  projected  the  Forward  Mission 
Study  Courses.  These  courses  have  been  officially  adopted  by 
the  Missionary  Education  Movement,  and  are  now  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  the  Editorial  Committee  of  the  Move- 
ment. The  books  of  the  Movement  are  now  being  used  by 
more  than  forty  home  and  foreign  mission  boards  and  socie- 
ties of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

The  aim  is  to  publish  a series  of  text-books  covering  the 
various  home  and  foreign  mission  fields  and  problems  and 
written  by  leading  authorities. 

The  following  text-books  having  a sale  of  over  1,200,000 
have  been  published: 


1.  Tiie  Price  of  Africa.  (Biographical.)  By  S.  Earl 
Taylor. 

2.  Into  All  the  World.  A general  survey  of  missions. 
By  Amos  R.  Wells. 

3.  Princely  Men  in  the  Heavenly  Kingdom.  (Bio- 
graphical.) By  Harlan  P.  Beach. 

4.  Sdnrise  in  the  Sunrise  Kingdom.  Revised  Edition. 
A study  of  Japan.  By  John  H.  DeForest. 

5.  Heroes  of  the  Cross  iN  America.  Home  Missions. 
(Biographical.)  By  Don  O.  Shelton. 

6.  Daybreak  in  the  Dark  Continent.  Revised  Edition. 
A study  of  Africa.  By  Wilson  S.  Naylor. 

7.  The  Christian  Conquest  of  India.  A study  of 
India.  By  James  M.  Thoburn. 

8.  Aliens  or  Americans?  A study  of  Immigration. 
By  Howard  B.  Grose. 

9.  The  Uplift  of  China.  Revised  Edition.  A study  of 
China.  By  Arthur  H.  Smith. 

10.  The  Challenge  of  the  City.  A study  of  the  City. 

By  Josiah  Strong.  / 

11.  The  Why  and  How  of  Foreign  Missions.  A study 
of  the  relation  of  the  home  Church  to  the  foreign  missionary 
enterprise.  By  Arthur  J.  Brown. 

12.  The  Moslem  World.  A study  of  the  Mohammedan 
World.  By  Samuel  M.  Zwemer. 

13.  The  Frontier.  A study  of  the  New  West.  By  Ward 
Platt. 

14.  South  America:  Its  Missionary  Problems.  A study 
of  South  America.  By  Thomas  B.  Neely. 

15.  THe  Upward  Path:  The  Evolution  of  a Race.  A 
study  of  the  Negro.  By  Mary  Helm. 

16.  Korea  in  Transition.  A study  of  Korea.  By  James 
S.  Gale. 

17.  Advance  in  the  Antilles.  A study  of  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico.  By  Howard  B.  Grose. 

18.  TnE  Decisive  Hour  of  Christian  Missions.  A 
study  of  conditions  throughout  the  non-Christian  world.  By 
John  R.  Mott. 

19.  India  Awakening.  A study  of  present  conditions  in 
India.  By  Sherwood  Eddy. 

20.  The  Church  of  the  Open  Country.  A study  of 
the  problem  of  the  Rural  Church.  By  Warren  H.  Wilson. 

21.  The  Emergency  in  China.  A study  of  present-day 
conditions  in  China.  By  F.  L.  Hawks  Pott. 

22.  Mexico  To-Day:  Social,  Political,  and  Religious  Con- 
ditions. A study  of  present-day  conditions  in  Mexico.  By 
George  B.  Winton. 

23.  Immigrant  Forces.  A study  of  the  immigrant  in 
his  home  and  American  environment.  By  William  P. 
Shriver. 


In  addition  to  these  courses,  the  following  have  been  pub- 
lished especially  for  use  among  younger  persons: 

1.  Uganda’s  White  Man  op  Work.  The  story  of  Alex- 
ander Mackay  of  Africa.  By  Sophia  Lyon  Fahs. 

2.  Servants  of  the  King.  A series  of  eleven  sketches  of 
famous  home  and  foreign  missionaries.  By  Robert  E.  Speer. 

3.  Under  Marching  Orders.  The  story  of  Mary  Porter 
Gamewell  of  China.  By  Ethel  Daniels  Hubbard. 

4.  Winning  the  Oregon  Country.  The  story  of  Marcus 
Whitman  and  Jason  Lee  in  the  Oregon  country.  By  John  T. 
Faris. 

5.  The  Black  Bearded  Barbarian.  The  story  of  George 
Leslie  Mackay  of  Formosa.  By  Marian  Keith. 

6.  Ann  of  Ava.  The  story  of  Ann  Hasseltine  Judson. 
By  Ethel  Daniels  Hubbard. 

These  books  are  published  by  mutual  arrangement  among 
the  home  and  foreign  mission  boards,  to  whom  all  orders 
should  be  addressed.  They  are  bound  uniformly  and  are  sold 
at  50  cents  in  cloth,  and  35  cents  in  paper;  postage,  8 cents 
extra. 


I 


/ 


